《道德真经衍义手抄(王守正)》Vol. 3

In the “In the Human World” chapter of the Zhuangzi, Lord Ye Zhi Gao was about to go on a diplomatic mission to Qi and sought advice from Confucius. Confucius told him that an old saying goes: “Do not take it upon yourself to alter your ruler’s command, and do not press for a task to be completed quickly. Forcing an outcome beyond its proper limits brings misfortune. Good things take a long time to cultivate before they can be achieved; once bad things take shape, they are hard to undo. Can one afford to be careless?”

Chapter Forty-Two: The Dao Gives Birth to One

The Dao gives birth to One; One gives birth to Two; Two gives birth to Three; and Three goes on to transform and generate the myriad things.

The Extended Explanation says: At the beginning, the primordial Qi was undivided and had not yet dispersed. This undivided state is called “One”; “One” is the Taiji (the fundamental state before things are differentiated).

Here the text quotes a passage from the “Tianrui” chapter of the Liezi. Liezi says: The sages of antiquity used Yin-Yang to govern Heaven and Earth. If things with form arise from what is formless, then where did Heaven and Earth themselves come from? Thus, there are four stages: Great Change, Great Beginning, Great Origin, and Great Purity. Great Change is the stage before Qi can be seen; Great Beginning is when Qi starts to form; Great Origin is when forms start to take shape; and Great Purity is when matter starts to form. Qi, form, and substance are all present, yet have not separated from one another. This is called “Hunlun,” meaning that the myriad things are one undivided whole and have not yet differentiated.

At this time, nothing can be seen, heard, or touched, so it is called “Change.” “Change” has no fixed shape or boundary. It transforms into One; One transforms into Seven, and Seven transforms into Nine. Nine represents change reaching its utmost limit, after which it changes and divides anew. It then returns to One. One is the beginning of the transformation of forms. Light and clear Qi rises to become Heaven; heavy and turbid Qi descends to become Earth; and the Qi formed by Yin-Yang blending in harmony gives rise to humanity. Thus it is said that Heaven and Earth contain vital essence, from which the myriad things are transformed and born.

The Extended Explanation says: The Qi of Heaven and Earth mingles, and the myriad things are transformed and born from it.

Here the text also quotes the “Xici” section of the Zhouyi: “Heaven and Earth interweave, and the myriad things ripen through transformation; male and female join their essences, and the myriad things come into being.” “Interweave” means to depend on and blend with one another. Heaven and Earth have no will, yet naturally form a unity. When the two Qi of Yin and Yang mingle and meet, the myriad things respond and gradually transform and mature. When male and female unite and their vital essences combine, the myriad things reproduce and come into being.

All things carry Yin within them and embrace Yang; the two vital energies mingle and surge, bringing about a state of harmony.

The Zhuangzi, in “Tian Zifang,” says: “The energy of utmost Yang is bright and flourishing; the energy of utmost Yin is still and subdued. The still and subdued Yin energy descends from Heaven, while the bright and flourishing Yang energy arises from Earth.” The stillness of Yin and the brightness of Yang describe the meeting and communication of the two energies. They mingle with one another and form harmony, and from this all things come into being.

The Yanyi also says: “When a great person makes the heart-mind empty and still, Yin energy descends from Heaven in stillness, and Yang energy arises from Earth in brightness.” This, too, describes Yin and Yang meeting and communicating. The two energies mingle and form harmony, and all things are born from them.

The Yanyi further says: “When a great person makes the chamber of the heart-mind empty and still, pure, clear, and bright energy gathers there.” The heart-mind is where the spirit resides, so it is called the “spirit’s chamber.” When the heart-mind is empty and still, it is like light appearing in an empty room; this is what “giving birth to brightness” means.

The Yanyi also says: “A noble person who does not let the heart-mind waver can nourish the vast, flowing energy.” This passage comes from the Mencius, “Gongsun Chou I.” Mencius said that by the age of forty he was no longer moved in his heart-mind. Forty is the stage at which a noble person has studied the Dao, understood its principles, and established Virtue. Confucius’ saying, “At forty, I had no doubts,” likewise means that the heart-mind no longer wanders or wavers.

Gongsun Chou asked Mencius how he had achieved an unmoved heart-mind. Mencius replied: “I understand how to analyze words, and I am skilled at nourishing my vast, flowing energy.” Gongsun Chou then asked what this energy was. Mencius said it was difficult to explain: “It is supremely great and supremely strong. If you nourish it through uprightness and do it no harm, it will fill the space between Heaven and Earth.”

People dislike no titles more than “orphan,” “widower,” and “unworthy,” yet rulers and lords use these titles for themselves. Thus, sometimes a thing gains by being diminished, and sometimes it suffers loss by being increased.

The Yanyi says: “‘Orphan,’ ‘widower,’ and ‘unworthy’ are all inauspicious titles.” The related passages appear in the Zuo Tradition and the Spring and Autumn Annals. They were already cited in the earlier chapter beginning “Of old, those who attained the One,” so they are not repeated here.

“Alone,” “orphaned,” and “unworthy” were humble terms by which rulers referred to themselves, and were also regarded as inauspicious titles.

The passage quoted here from the Zuo Tradition and the Spring and Autumn Annals has already been transcribed in the earlier chapter “Of Old, Those Who Attained the One,” so it is not repeated here.

The Way of Heaven diminishes what is full and increases what is humble.

Here the text cites the Commentary on the Judgment of the Humility hexagram in the Book of Changes: “The Way of Heaven diminishes what is full and increases what is humble. The way of Earth transforms what is full and directs it toward what is low. Spirits and deities bring harm to what is full and bless what is humble. People dislike self-satisfaction and favor humility.” Though humble people may hold high positions, their virtue shines all the more clearly; though they hold low positions, others cannot easily surpass them. This is the way for a noble person to bring things to a good beginning and end.

Humbly restrain and cultivate yourself.

This is the meaning of the first six-line statement of the Humility hexagram in the Book of Changes: “A humble and yet humble noble person will meet with good fortune, even when crossing a great river.” The Image Commentary explains: “The humble and yet humble noble person cultivates himself through humility.” The point here is that a noble person is always humble, and through this humility cultivates good fortune.

Greedily pursuing wealth and status.

Taotie, according to legend, was the worthless son of the Jinyun clan, whom people throughout the realm called “Taotie.” Greed for wealth was called “tao,” and greed for food “tie.” The passage refers to pursuing wealth and profit and making riches and status one’s goal, without realizing that the sages once said: “To obtain wealth and status by improper means is, to me, like floating clouds.”

The Book of Documents says: “Self-satisfaction brings loss.”

This cites the Counsels of the Great Yu in the Book of Documents. Boyi advised Yu: “Virtue can move Heaven, with no distinction of distance. Self-satisfaction brings loss; humility brings benefit. This is the Way of Heaven.”

The powerful state of Qin perished through its arbitrary rule.

The Guang Sheng Yi says: “In ancient times, Qin annexed the six states and unified the Nine Provinces. Relying on its great strength and military might, it had no rival under Heaven. As for…”

The Guangshengyi says: In the past, the Qin state annexed the six other states and unified the Nine Provinces. Its power was great and its army strong, and it had no rival under Heaven. Yet before long, the Qin dynasty collapsed: Fusu died at the Great Wall, and Ziying surrendered at Zhidao. Forty-six days after taking the throne, he was killed when Xiang Yu arrived. Thus the Qin dynasty fell, and Ziying lost his life. In light of this, did the Qin dynasty not meet its end because it acted arbitrarily and pursued its own course?

The Yanyi says: The Han dynasty rose to greatness through harmony and accommodation.

The Guangshengyi says: Liu Bang, Emperor Gaozu of Han, came from the area around Pengcheng and Fengpei. He recommended the worthy and employed the capable, fought fiercely against Xiang Yu, and ultimately won the realm. Through virtue he subdued the powerful Chu forces, and through benevolence he brought benefits to the people. Wise men devised plans for him, and worthy men served him. He employed three outstanding talents and established his imperial enterprise. He also set out three simple laws, bringing peace to a people worn down by hardship. He possessed the generous, openhearted bearing of an elder. Thus the Han passed through the Former and Later Han dynasties, with twenty-four emperors ruling over more than four hundred years. Did it not prosper through harmony and accommodation?

The “Three Eminent Ones” refers to Zhang Liang, Han Xin, and Xiao He. Liu Bang said: “In planning within the tent and securing victory a thousand miles away, I am no match for Zifang (Zhang Liang). In commanding a million troops, winning every battle and taking every objective, I am no match for Han Xin. In transporting grain and supplying the Guanzhong region, ensuring that provisions never run short, I am no match for Xiao He. These three are all outstanding talents. My ability to employ them is why I won the realm.”

The “Three Articles” refers to the eleventh month of Qin Er Shi’s reign, when Liu Bang, Duke of Pei, summoned the elders and leading figures from the counties and said: “For a long time, you elders have suffered under the Qin dynasty’s harsh laws. I once agreed with the feudal lords that whoever first entered Guanzhong would become King of Guanzhong. I should now become King of Guanzhong, but I will make only three laws with you elders: anyone who kills shall be put to death; anyone who injures another or steals shall be punished according to law; all other Qin laws are abolished. Officials and common people alike may live in peace as before.”

The Yanyi says: Zilu delighted in showing off his courage, Yi was skilled at archery, and Ao, the legendary warrior of antiquity, could row a boat on dry land. In the end, none of them met a good end.

Zilu loved displays of courage and military prowess, and ultimately met an untimely end. This saying comes from “Gongye Chang” in the Analects. Confucius said, “If the Way cannot be put into practice, I will take a wooden raft and drift out to sea. The only one who would follow me, perhaps, is Zilu.” Zilu was delighted to hear this. Confucius added, “Zhong You (Zilu’s personal name) surpasses me in love of courage, but does not know how to weigh his choices.”

Hearing this, Zilu thought his teacher was simply praising him and did not understand Confucius’s true intent: Confucius commended his courage while also criticizing his failure to weigh matters and make his actions accord with what is right. Yi was a skilled archer and ruler of the state of Youqiong; he was very strong and excelled at archery. “Jie” was someone able to sail a boat over land, and was also exceptionally strong. These figures were recorded in chapter thirty-three above, so they are not copied here.

All three relied on their strength to surpass others, yet none met a good end. The reason was that they went against the principle of softness and humility. Lao Jun uses them to admonish the people of the world.

End of volume eleven of Hand-copied Elucidations of the Meaning of the True Scripture of the Way and Its Virtue

Hand-copied Elucidations of the Meaning of the True Scripture of the Way and Its Virtue, volume twelve

Compiled by Wang Shouzheng, the retired scholar of Qing’an at Wufeng

The softest things in the world can drive the hardest things in the world.

The Elucidations explain: This is like water swirling, flowing, and converging.

“Swirling, eddying, flowing, and converging” refers to the different states of water, such as swirling and rushing against obstacles, or standing still. Related accounts appear in the “Yellow Emperor” chapter of the Liezi. They were cited earlier in chapter four, “The Dao Is Empty,” of the Dao Scripture, so they are not repeated here.

A force without form or substance can enter places where there is no gap.

The Elucidations explain: It can pierce metal and pass through stone.

This saying comes from the “King Mu of Zhou” chapter of the Liezi. In the time of King Mu of Zhou, there was a wondrous kingdom in a far-off western land, with strange accounts of beings who could transform. These were cited earlier in chapter four, “The Dao Is Empty,” of the Dao Scripture, so they are not repeated here.

A force without form or substance can enter places where there is no gap.

The Elucidations explain: It can pierce metal and pass through stone.

The text quotes a passage from “The King Mu of Zhou” chapter of the Liezi: In the time of King Mu of Zhou, a person skilled in transformation came from a land far to the west. He could enter water and fire, pass through metal and stone, turn mountains and rivers upside down, and move cities. He could ride through empty space without falling and touch stone without being hindered. His transformations were innumerable and inexhaustible.

The commentary explains: His activity extended throughout the Great Void, the boundless expanse of space, reaching up to the sky and down to the earth.

The text quotes a passage from “Carving and Polishing” chapter of the Zhuangzi: The spirit reaches in all directions, flowing without obstruction and leaving no place beyond its reach; it rises to the sky and spreads across the earth. “Flowing” means reaching everywhere. Those who cherish and nurture the spirit can make it reach in all directions and flow without hindrance, extending downward across the deep earth and upward to the distant heavens. It can reach every part of Heaven and Earth.

The commentary explains: This is like the account in the Liezi of Zhao Xiangzi leading an army of one hundred thousand.

The text quotes a passage from “The Yellow Emperor” chapter of the Liezi. Its meaning has already been explained in detail above, so it will not be repeated here.

Thus I know that Wuwei (non-action), following nature without forcing things, is beneficial. Few things under Heaven can match the benefits of teaching without words and of Wuwei.

The commentary explains: The sage observes the principles by which the Dao of Heaven operates naturally.

The text quotes the “Chapter on the Immortal’s Embrace of the One and the Elaboration of the Dao,” from the Yellow Emperor’s Scripture on Yin and the Hidden Talisman: “Observe the Dao of Heaven and follow its patterns of operation; the principles are all contained therein.”

The commentary explains: By maintaining a dignified bearing and observing the myriad things, one can bring about transformation without speaking.

The Zhuangzi’s “Tian Zifang” chapter records that Tian Zifang was sitting with Marquis Wen of Wei and praised Xigong several times. Marquis Wen asked, “Is Xigong your teacher?” Tian Zifang replied, “No. He is from my hometown, and his name is Wuze. When he explains principles, he often gets straight to the heart of the matter, so I praise him.” Marquis Wen asked, “Then you have no teacher?” Tian Zifang answered, “I do.” Marquis Wen asked again, “Who is your teacher?” Tian Zifang said, “Dongguo Shunzi.” Marquis Wen asked, “If so, why have I never heard you praise him?” Tian Zifang replied, “He is utterly genuine. Outwardly he is a person, but inwardly he is as empty and still as Heaven. He responds to things while keeping to his original nature, and is tranquil yet able to contain all things. When he encounters something that goes against the Dao, he composes his bearing and manner, allowing others to awaken through him and letting the distractions in their hearts dissolve. How could I ever fully describe or praise someone like that?”

The text goes on to say that although Gaoyao could not speak, he served as the official in charge of justice, and under him there was no abuse of punishment throughout the realm. This shows that good governance does not depend entirely on words. Although Shi Kuang was blind, he held high office in the state of Jin, and under him Jin had no disorderly affairs of state. This shows that insight into things does not depend entirely on the eyes.

The “Spirit” chapter of the Wenzi records Lao Jun saying: “In winter, all things naturally turn toward the sun’s warmth; in summer, they turn toward the coolness. No one forces them to do so. They respond to the subtle influences of nature: without being summoned, things come; without being driven away, they depart. This process is so deep and subtle that no one can explain its cause, yet things come about of themselves. If people insist on waiting until they see something with their own eyes before acting, or until someone gives an order before they move, governing the world in this way will be difficult.”

Gaoyao, a legendary worthy minister of ancient times, could not speak, yet served as an official in charge of justice. There were no cases of excessive punishment throughout the realm. This shows that good governance can sometimes be achieved without words. The “Art of the Ruler” chapter of the Huainanzi explains: “Although he had a physical impairment, he could still judge legal cases clearly and understand people’s true circumstances. This shows that words are not essential.” Shi Kuang, a musician of the Spring and Autumn period who served the state of Jin, was blind, yet held a senior office. Jin’s affairs did not fall into disorder. This shows that one can govern well without seeing with one’s own eyes. The Huainanzi’s “Art of the Ruler” chapter says that although Shi Kuang was blind, he still governed Jin well, and no political disorder arose.

Issuing no commands in words and discerning things without looking with the eyes: these are the methods sages use to guide the people. The people are influenced by those above them not because of what they hear them say, but because of what they see them do. These passages are cited to explain the benefits of teaching without words and Wuwei (non-action). Few people in the world can reach this level; this is no empty claim.

The Extended Commentary says: “Among the Nine Schools and the many other traditions, few can match the teaching of Wuwei.”

“Masters and Hundred Schools” refers to the various thinkers and schools. The Treatise on Arts and Letters in the Book of Han says there were ten schools of thought, of which nine were worth examining: the Confucians, Daoists, Yin-Yang thinkers, Legalists, Logicians, Mohists, Diplomats, Eclectics, and Agriculturalists. As for the military strategists and the many other writers outside the official study of the Classics, since the Zhou dynasty more than a hundred people established doctrines and wrote books; all were called “masters.” “Master” was originally a general term for a man. The various masters did not presume to rank themselves alongside the Six Classics, so their works were often titled with words such as “Master,” “Discourse,” “Record,” or “Book.” Some were named after their authors’ surnames; others took titles based on their era or status.

There were many such titles and authors: Changzi, Zengzi, Yanzi, Mencius, Guanzi, Sun Qingzi, Lu Lianzi, Liezi, Zhuangzi, Geng Sangzi, Wangsunzi, Yin Wenzi, Gongsun Nizi, the Spring and Autumn Annals of Lü Buwei, Deng Xizi, Guiguzi, and figures such as Lu Jia, Chao Cuo, Jia Yi, Huan Tan, and Cui Shi. Others gave their works different titles, including the Book of Zisi, The Golden Coffer of the Grand Duke, the Huainanzi, Discourse on Salt and Iron, Garden of Persuasions, New Prefaces, Lunheng, Treatise of the Hidden Man, Popular Customs, Wenzi, Shenjian, Changyan, Dianlun, Zhonglun, Classic of Loyalty, Yilin, and Record of Daoist Sayings. There were also works such as the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Book of Rivers, Baopuzi, Great Mystery Classic, In Search of the Supernatural, Record of the Things of the World, Materia Medica, Classic of Horse Appraisal, Zhou Gnomon, The Art of War, Sima’s Methods of War, and Sunzi’s Mathematical Classic. These works addressed diverse fields, including profound principles, Confucian ritual, statutes, calendars and astronomy, Yin-Yang and celestial patterns, and the techniques of names, laws, and political strategy. Each developed its own strengths and set forth its own views.

Yet some of these doctrines discuss only human action, while others emphasize a single aspect; some are lax at times and rigid at others, and few can bring all sides into harmony. Judged by this measure, they fall short of the realm of Wuwei (non-action)—following the Great Dao without imposing arbitrary action. Only a ruler who truly embodies the Dao, a person endowed with the highest De, has no anxieties in the heart and no distracting thoughts to disturb the spirit. When acting, such a person seems to leave no trace; when still, seems to be doing nothing. In accord with the Dao and open to its full understanding, such a person can carry on the legacy of the Mysterious Originator, Laozi.

Which is closer and more important: reputation or life? Which is more precious: life or wealth? Which is more troubling: gain or loss?

The Yanyi explains: Life is the real foundation; reputation is merely something secondary. Reputation is a guest that depends on the life that sustains it. To abandon the foundation and pursue what is secondary is to put things in the wrong order.

The “Yang Zhu” chapter of the Liezi records that Yang Zhu went to the state of Lu to expound the Way and stayed at the home of the Meng family. Meng asked him, “Isn’t it enough simply to be alive? Why pursue a reputation?” Yang Zhu replied, “To pursue a reputation is to seek wealth.” Meng asked again, “Once wealthy, why not stop?” Yang Zhu said, “To attain high status.” Meng asked, “Once you have high status, why not stop?” Yang Zhu said, “To leave a name after death.” Meng asked, “What can a person do after death?” Yang Zhu replied, “It is for the sake of one’s descendants.” Meng then asked, “What good does a reputation do for one’s descendants?” Yang Zhu said, “Pursuing a reputation wears down body and mind. But through one’s reputation, one can bring blessings to one’s clan and benefit the people of one’s home village—how much more, then, one’s descendants?”

The Yanyi goes on to say: People such as Bao Jiao and Jie Zitui upheld their reputations for moral integrity, yet in doing so they burdened their actual lives.

The Commentary says that Bao Jiao appears in the “Robber Zhi” chapter of the Zhuangzi. He affected a reputation for moral conduct and could not get along with the world; he clung to a tree and died. Bao was his surname, and Jiao his given name. He was a recluse of the Zhou dynasty. He prided himself on being honest and principled, carrying loads, gathering firewood, and eating acorns to stave off hunger. He refused to serve the Son of Heaven or associate with the feudal lords. When Zigong passed by, he said to him, “I have heard that if one disapproves of a state’s policies, one does not set foot on its land; if one considers its ruler corrupt, one does not accept his stipend. You live here and eat its food—can that be right?” Bao Jiao replied, “I have heard that the honest prize advancing into public life but think little of withdrawing from it; the virtuous are quick to feel shame but think little of death.” He then stood holding a tree until he died of exhaustion.

Jie Zitui was a man of exceptional loyalty. He once cut flesh from his own thigh to feed Duke Wen of Jin, but the duke later forgot him. In anger, Jie Zitui left and was burned to death while clinging to a tree. Duke Wen of Jin was named Chong’er. In his youth, he was persecuted by his stepmother, Li Ji. Hoping to secure the succession for her own son, Yiqiu, Li Ji repeatedly slandered Chong’er to Duke Xian of Jin. Duke Xian believed her, and Chong’er had no choice but to flee to another state. During the flight, Chong’er ran short of food, so Jie Zitui cut flesh from his thigh and gave it to him. Later, Chong’er returned home and took the throne as Duke Wen of Jin. He rewarded his followers but forgot Jie Zitui. Jie Zitui composed the “Song of the Dragon and Snake,” wrote it on the palace gate, and then left in anger. Duke Wen regretted what he had done and went to Mount Jie, also called Mianshan, to look for him. Jie Zitui hid and would not come out, so the duke ordered the mountain set on fire, hoping to force him out. Even as the flames reached him, Jie Zitui refused to leave and was finally burned to death while clinging to a tree.

The Commentary holds that Bao Jiao and Jie Zitui merely kept their reputations intact in vain, at the cost of harming themselves. The Extended Commentary continues: The rich toil at their work, while the powerful labor day and night; their minds are always entangled in the pursuit of their affairs.

The “Utmost Happiness” chapter of the Zhuangzi says: What people everywhere esteem is wealth, high status, long life, and a good name. What they enjoy is bodily comfort, delicious food, fine clothes, pleasing appearances, and beautiful music. What they despise is poverty, low status, a short life, and a bad name. What they find painful is a body denied comfort, a mouth without tasty food, a body without fine clothes, eyes without pleasing sights, and ears without beautiful sounds. When people cannot obtain these things, they become anxious and fearful. To exhaust one’s mind in serving the body in this way is truly foolish.

The wealthy labor hard and accumulate great riches, yet cannot fully enjoy them. They cannot eat delicious food, wear fine clothes, see pleasing sights, or hear beautiful music. When they cannot obtain these things, they too become anxious and fearful. They toil to amass wealth but cannot make full use of it; this way of life, too, fixes the mind on things outside oneself. People of high status work day and night, repeatedly considering whether their actions are right or wrong. This way of life, too, estranges them from their own bodies. From the moment people are born, they are accompanied by worry. As the long-lived grow old, their sorrows persist for a long time. To live with such hardship is truly cause for lament. It follows that the wealthy and high-ranking, coveting fame and pursuing gain, spend their whole lives in worry and may scarcely enjoy a single day of peace. This passage is cited to show which matters more: the body or possessions.

The Extended Meaning says: A person of ambition sacrifices their life in pursuit of fame; a greedy person sacrifices their life in pursuit of wealth.

The “Joined Toes” chapter of the Zhuangzi says: Let us try to explain this principle. From the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties onward, people everywhere have bartered away their inborn nature for external things. Ordinary people sacrifice their lives in pursuit of gain; scholars sacrifice their lives in pursuit of fame; high ministers sacrifice their lives to protect their families; and sages sacrifice their lives for the world. Their pursuits differ, and their titles and stations are not the same, but they are alike in injuring their inborn nature and sacrificing themselves in pursuit of some goal.

The Extended Meaning says: Boyi died beneath Mount Shouyang.

This passage quotes the text of “Webbed Toes” in the Zhuangzi: Bo Yi died at the foot of Mount Shouyang. This event was recorded in detail in Chapter Two, so it is not repeated here.

The commentary says: Robber Zhi died on Mount Dongling for the sake of profit.

This passage quotes the text of “Webbed Toes” in the Zhuangzi. Robber Zhi was the cousin of Liu Xiahui. His name was Zhi, and he had nine thousand men under his command. Because he often engaged in large-scale robbery, people called him “Robber Zhi.” Dongling is a mountain, which some say is Mount Tai. It lies within Jizhou, fifteen li from Dongping. Robber Zhi died on this mountain.

The commentary says: Zhuangzi firmly declined the office of chancellor of Chu, preferring to be a turtle dragging its tail through the mud.

This passage quotes the text of “Autumn Floods” in the Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi was fishing beside the Pu River when King Wei of Chu sent two ministers to visit him. They said the king was willing to entrust him with the affairs of state. Holding his fishing rod and without turning around, Zhuangzi said, “I have heard that Chu has a sacred turtle that died three thousand years ago. The king keeps it in a bamboo box, wrapped in silk, and enshrines it in the ancestral temple. Would this turtle rather be dead, leaving behind its bones to receive such honored offerings, or alive, dragging its tail through the mud?” The two ministers replied, “It would rather be alive, dragging its tail through the mud.” Zhuangzi said, “Go back, then. I too will drag my tail through the mud.”

The commentary says: The Celestial Master declined the post of minister and wished to study the Dao of Xuanyuan (the Yellow Emperor).

The Zhang Family Inherited Account records: The Celestial Master’s surname was Zhang and his given name was Daoling; his courtesy name was Fuhan. He was the sixth-generation descendant of Zhang Liang, the Marquis of Liu in the Han dynasty. Quiet by nature, he loved the learning of antiquity and studied the Classics and histories widely. He also understood the study of celestial patterns, the ordering of fate, and prophetic diagrams and texts. He was quick to help those in difficulty and aided people without regard to whether they were close to him or not. As a result, his reputation spread throughout the court and among the people.

Emperor Zhang of Han summoned him by decree to serve as an Admonition Grandee, an official responsible for remonstrating with the emperor, but he declined. He said to his disciples with a sigh: “Even a person who lives a long life reaches no more than a hundred years; it passes in the blink of an eye. Can our parents, spouses, and children—the people closest to us—really remain at our side forever? We cannot even keep our own bodies for long, so how much less can we hold on to wealth and status beyond ourselves? I have heard that in high antiquity, Xuanyuan and Qiaosong attained the Dao and ascended to Heaven, roaming freely in the boundless realm. They are the teachers I admire. I will leave the world behind, free myself from its entanglements, and go learn their Dao. From today on, I part company with you all.”

The disciples took their leave in sorrow and departed. Only Wang Chang asked to follow him. The Celestial Master, moved by his resolve, kept him by his side in service. Later, Zhang Daoling entered Qianheng and came to Songyang. There he received the Nine Cauldrons Elixir Scripture of the Yellow Emperor from a divine immortal. He then sought out Xicheng Mountain, built an altar to worship the True Spirit, and cultivated the Nine Elixirs, medicines made through Daoist alchemy.

According to the records, on the ninth day of the ninth month in the second year of Yongshou, the Most High, a Daoist supreme deity, sent a cloud chariot to Yun Tai Peak to welcome Zhang Daoling. He ascended to Heaven in broad daylight at the age of 123. In the seventh year of Tianbao, he was granted the title “Celestial Master.” In the fourth year of Zhonghe, during Emperor Xizong’s reign, he was further granted the title “Great Master of the Three Pure Ones Who Supports and Teaches the Dao.” The Song dynasty later bestowed on him the title “Perfected Lord of Quiet Response, Great Master Who Assists the Origin of the Three Heavens.”

The Extended Meaning says: The Zhuangzi records that Yuan Xian lived in the state of Lu in a humble house whose four walls together measured no more than the space of a single wall.

The “Letting Go of Kingship” chapter of the Zhuangzi records that Yuan Xian was a disciple of Confucius. His surname was Yuan, his given name Si, and his courtesy name Xian. Zigong was also a disciple of Confucius; his given name was Ci. He was eloquent and fond of luxury. His related deeds are fully recorded in the book Yizhong, so they will not be repeated here.

The Extended Meaning says: The History of the Northern Dynasties records that Empress Dowager Ming of Wei once visited the silk repository in person.

The History of the Northern Dynasties records that Empress Dowager Ming of Wei visited the silk repository in person.

Chapter Forty-Five: Great Perfection Seems Incomplete

One who has truly achieved perfection may appear to have something lacking, yet his effectiveness never fails. One who is truly full may appear empty, yet his effectiveness is inexhaustible.

The Extended Meaning says: Although Tang Yao established outstanding achievements, he still felt that he fell short. For this reason, he became the most virtuous ruler among the Five Emperors.

The Analects, “Tai Bo,” records Confucius as saying: “How great Yao was as a ruler! His virtue was immense. Only Heaven is vast; Yao modeled himself on Heaven’s virtue, so broad that it cannot be described. The people could not put into words the greatness of his achievements. His accomplishments stood tall and magnificent, and his systems of ritual and music shone brilliantly.”

The Zhuangzi, “Free and Easy Wandering,” records that Yao once said to Xu You: “The sun and moon have already risen, yet a torch has not been put out. To compete with them for brightness would surely be difficult. The timely rain has already fallen, yet to keep irrigating would be futile. If you were to take charge of governing the world, the world would be at peace. I still occupy the throne, though I feel I fall short. Please allow me to hand over the rule to you.” Xu You replied: “You govern the world, and the world is already at peace.”

The Extended Meaning says: Confucius gathered the essence of the Way of the sages and worthies, yet did not claim to be a sage. For this reason, he became a teacher for all generations.

In the “Wan Zhang, Part Two” chapter of the Mencius, Mencius describes Confucius as one who “brought together the great achievements,” comparing him to a musical performance: it begins with the sound of a bell, which sets the music’s structure in order, and concludes with the sound of a jade chime, bringing the music to completion. Beginning and setting the structure in order are expressions of wisdom; concluding and bringing the whole piece to fulfillment are the work of a sage.

In the “Gongsun Chou, Part One” chapter of the Mencius, Gongsun Chou asks, “So Confucius was already a sage, then?” Mencius replies, “Ah, what are you saying!” Long ago, Zigong asked Confucius, “Has the Master already attained the state of a sage?” Confucius answered, “I cannot yet be a sage; I only study without ever feeling satisfied and teach others without ever growing weary.” Zigong took studying without satisfaction to be wisdom, and teaching without weariness to be benevolence. Since the Master was both benevolent and wise, Zigong concluded, he was already a sage. Mencius cites this exchange to show that although Confucius possessed the virtue of a sage, he did not claim to be one.

“The greatest integrity seems bent; the greatest skill seems clumsy; the greatest eloquence seems inarticulate.” The most upright person may appear to bend; the most skillful may seem clumsy; the most eloquent may seem unable to speak well.

The commentary explains that Liu Xiahui, an upright and worthy minister of the Spring and Autumn period in the state of Lu, whose personal name was Zhan Qin, served others by the Way of integrity. He was dismissed from office many times, yet did not leave.

The “Weizi, Chapter Eighteen” chapter of the Analects records that Liu Xiahui served as a judge in Lu, an official responsible for criminal cases. Someone advised him, “You can no longer remain here.” He replied, “If I serve others by the Way of integrity, where would I not be dismissed many times? And if I were to serve others by going against the Way, why should I leave my native state?”

The commentary also says that one may carve forms of every kind without boasting of one’s skill.

This draws on an idea from the Zhuangzi: the greatest skill bears and covers Heaven and Earth, carving the forms of the myriad things, yet does not feel it is showing off its craft. How could it be like carving a leaf from the wood of the catalpa tree—fashioning a leaf from wood or jade—and deliberately striving to display one’s skill?

The Liezi records that a man in the state of Song once carved a catalpa leaf from jade for his ruler.

The material from the “Explaining Symbols” chapter of the Liezi has already been discussed in detail in the earlier exposition of its principles. If someone can skillfully make a delicate work of art from a leaf of the paper mulberry, does that count as ingenious craftsmanship?

The Extended Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and De says: The Liezi records that a man in the state of Song carved a leaf of the paper mulberry from jade for his ruler.

The material from the “Explaining Symbols” chapter of the Liezi has already been discussed in detail in the earlier exposition of its principles.

The Extended Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and De says: For example, Qing the Carpenter carved wood to make a jù, a wooden frame for hanging bells and stone chimes. Qing the Carpenter was a master craftsman of the state of Lu. “Carpenter” was his official title, and Qing was his name.

The material from the “Attaining Life” chapter of the Zhuangzi has already been fully discussed in the earlier exposition of its principles.

The Extended Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and De says: Do not embellish the xiaoshuo.

Here, xiaoshuo refers to writings of the “school of minor talks.” They probably originated with minor officials who collected popular reports in ancient times, and their contents were mostly street talk and hearsay. The writings of this school comprise fifteen categories and 113 pieces.

The Extended Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and De says: This is why Confucius said, “I would rather not speak.” He also said, “What has Heaven ever said? The four seasons follow their courses, and all things grow. What has Heaven ever said?”

The “Yang Huo” chapter of the Analects records: Confucius said, “I would rather not speak.” Zigong asked, “If the Master does not speak, what are we, your disciples, to pass on?” Confucius replied, “What has Heaven ever said? The four seasons follow their courses, and all things grow. What has Heaven ever said?”

The “Yang Huo” chapter of the Analects records: Confucius said, “I would rather not speak.” Zigong asked, “If the Master does not speak, what are we, your disciples, to pass on?” Confucius replied, “What has Heaven ever said? The four seasons follow their courses, and all things grow. What has Heaven ever said?”

Restless activity can overcome the cold, and stillness can overcome the heat. Serenity and quietude are the true way of all under Heaven.

The Extended Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and De says: This is drawn from the example of going out dressed in hemp clothing.

The “Countryside” chapter of the Analects says, “In hot weather, he wore an unlined garment of fine or coarse hemp.” The term “unlined garment” means a single-layer robe. Fine hemp cloth was called chi, and coarse hemp cloth xi. When dressing, one first put on an undergarment, then wore the hemp robe over it, and went out.

Chapter 46 of the Classic of the Dao and De: When the Way prevails under Heaven

No transgression is greater than indulging one’s desires; no calamity is greater than failing to know contentment; no fault is greater than covetousness.

The Extended Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and De says: This will bring the calamity of being put in shackles.

These are words from the “Great Treatise, Part Two” of the Book of Changes: “Good deeds that do not accumulate are not enough to build virtue…” Chapter 46 of the Classic of the Dao and De.

The greatest wrongdoing is indulging things that stir up desire; the greatest misfortune is not knowing contentment; the greatest failing is coveting ever more.

The commentary says this brings the outcome of wearing shackles and suffering calamity.

It quotes the “Great Treatise, Part Two” of the Book of Changes: “Good deeds that are not accumulated are insufficient to establish a good name; evil deeds that are not accumulated are insufficient to bring about the calamity of destruction. The petty person thinks that a small good deed brings no benefit, so does not do it; thinks that a small evil deed is of no consequence, so does not remove it. Thus evil deeds accumulate until they can no longer be concealed, and offenses grow so great they cannot be undone. The Book of Changes says: ‘Wearing the cangue, with the ears covered—this is an ominous sign.’”

The commentary says this is like the man from Qi who snatched gold: he saw only the gold and not the people around him.

It quotes the “Explaining Portents” chapter of the Liezi: Long ago, a man from Qi wanted gold. Early one morning, he dressed himself and went to the marketplace. At a gold seller’s stall, he grabbed some gold and ran. An official caught him and asked, “With so many people around, why did you snatch someone else’s gold?” He replied, “When I took the gold, I saw no people—only the gold.” This shows how badly greed can disrupt a person’s mind. The ancients said that someone who focuses on observing the tip of an autumn hair—a fine new hair on an animal in autumn—will fail to see Mount Tai; someone who listens intently for harmony among the Five Tones—gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu—will fail to hear thunder. Once a person’s mind is fixed only on what they desire, they overlook everything else before their eyes. How could they fail to be cautious?

The commentary refers to an entry in the Spring and Autumn Annals for the tenth year of Duke Huan of Lu. The copied text says that the relevant passage has already been explained in detail in the Extended Commentary, so it is not copied again here.

The commentary also refers to the story of Zhi Xiangzi, at the end of the Zhou dynasty, demanding land from Han Kangzi. The Spring and Autumn Annals already records this, and it has also been fully explained in the Extended Commentary, so it is not copied again.

Therefore, one who knows contentment has lasting contentment through being content.

The commentary mentions that, during the Han dynasty, Yan Junping was acquainted with Luo Chong, a wealthy man from Shu Commandery.

The Yan Yi says: In former times, Yan Junping of the Han dynasty and Luo Chong, a wealthy man from Shu Commandery, were close friends.

The Chao says: This passage is already recorded in full in the Yan Yi, so there is no need to copy it again.

Chapter 47: Without Leaving the Door

Without stepping outside the home, one can understand the affairs of the world. Without looking out through the window, one can know the Dao of Heaven—the patterns by which Heaven and Earth operate.

The Yan Yi says: The Mencius teaches that the principles of all things are complete within us, and that we should turn inward to seek them.

The Chao, citing “Jinxin I” from the Mencius, explains: Mencius says, “The principles of all things are complete within me.” This means that the principles are inherently so. In matters of great importance, such as the proper relations between ruler and subject, and between father and son; and in smaller matters, such as the distinct principles that apply to the many subtle things, all are fully present in human nature. “To examine oneself and find sincerity—there is no greater joy”: this means that when we turn inward and confirm that these principles are truly real, we gain the greatest joy. Huian, Zhu Xi’s courtesy name, comments: This chapter teaches that the principles of all things are present in the human body and mind. If one puts them into practice and truly fulfills them, the Dao is within oneself, and the heart naturally fills with joy. If one acts with the forgiving spirit of extending oneself to others, selfish desires have no place to remain, and one can thereby attain benevolence.

The Yan Yi says: Yang Xiong said, “The human heart is perhaps where the mysterious and wondrous reside.”

The Chao, citing the “Asking About the Spirit” chapter of the Fayan by Yang Xiong, explains: The mysterious and wondrous nature resides deep within the heart. By quieting the mind and reflecting inwardly, one can perceive Heaven’s mystery and radiance: the transformations of Yin-Yang are Heaven’s mystery, while the movements of the sun and moon are Heaven’s radiance. They shine in all directions, bringing light even to dark places. Heaven’s essence is pure, firm, balanced, and refined. The myriad things each come into being in their own way, while Heaven covers and nourishes them, allowing each to develop according to its kind. The mysterious and wondrous nature manifests as spirit between Heaven and Earth, and as the heart in human beings. The heart can connect with the mysterious and wondrous. If the heart holds fast, it is preserved; if it is abandoned, it is lost. Perhaps only the sage can hold fast to the original heart from beginning to end.

The Yan Yi says: Rain and sunshine both arrive at their appointed times, each in due measure.

The Hongfan chapter of the Book of Documents says: “Auspicious signs appear when the ruler is solemn and dignified, and Heaven sends rain at the proper time; when he governs well, Heaven brings clear skies at the proper time; when he is wise and perceptive, Heaven brings warmth at the proper time; when he plans well, Heaven brings cold at the proper time; and when he is sagely and impartial, Heaven brings wind at the proper time.” This refers to human arrogance and usurpation, improper conduct, indulgence and laxity, impatience and haste, and ignorance and confusion. In Heaven, these correspond to the Five Phases; in human conduct, they correspond to the “Five Matters.” When the Five Matters are properly cultivated and ordered, auspicious signs appear according to the principle of correspondence between like things. When they are in disarray, ominous signs appear according to that same principle. This is the natural order.

An explanatory note says: “The stars and constellations move out of order.”

The Guangshengyi says: “An emperor governing the realm should take the Dao of Heaven as his model. Ominous signs appear according to the principle by which like things correspond. This is the natural order.”

An explanatory note says: “The stars and constellations move out of order.”

The Guangshengyi says: “An emperor governing the realm should model himself on Heaven, which covers all things, and Earth, which bears all things. He should observe the courses of the sun and moon, respectfully arrange the seasons for farming, and use the Xuanji Yuheng—an ancient instrument for observing the heavens—to correct the courses of the sun, moon, and five planets. In this way, he can accord with the Dao of Heaven. As for the stars and constellations moving out of order, the Lingbao Duren Jing says that if such disorder appears, or if the sun and moon fail to keep their proper times, one should undertake purification, offer incense, and recite scripture.”

An explanatory note says: “The virtue of the sage accords with Heaven and Earth, and his wisdom shines as brightly as the sun and moon. If he acts before the proper time, the Dao of Heaven does not oppose him; if he acts after the proper time, he follows the time.”

The Wenyan commentary on the Qian hexagram of the Book of Changes says: “The virtue of the great person accords with Heaven and Earth; his brightness accords with the sun and moon; he accords with the sequence of the four seasons, and he understands the fortunes and misfortunes governed by ghosts and spirits. If he acts before the proper time, Heaven does not oppose him; if he acts after the proper time, he follows the time.” This means that when a great person acts before the proper time has arrived, the Dao of Heaven will also accommodate him; when he acts after the proper time has arrived, he follows the Dao of Heaven and does not dare oppose it. If a ruler can do this, he need not peer out through a window: the Dao of Heaven will be clear to him of itself.

Thus the sage need not travel in person to know the world; need not see with his own eyes to understand things; and need not act deliberately to bring things to completion.

An explanatory note says: “Yao’s benevolence was as vast as Heaven, and his wisdom as profound as the spirits. Shun understood the bonds between people and could also discern the myriad things. It can be said that they saw through the world, accorded with the Dao of Heaven, and brought their undertakings to completion.”

The Yanyi says: Yao’s benevolence and virtue were as vast as the heavens, and his wisdom was spiritlike. Shun understood the ethical relationships between people and could discern the many kinds of things; one could say that he understood the world. Heaven is supreme, and only Yao could model himself on the Dao of Heaven. Even amid howling winds, thunder, and torrential rain, Shun never lost his way; one could say that he had insight into the Dao of Heaven. What did Yao and Shun do, after all? They simply governed the world with reverence and composure, like rulers sitting upright and facing south.

The Basic Annals of the Five Emperors in the Records of the Grand Historian says that Yao’s posthumous title followed the rules for such titles and meant “one who supported others through good conduct and yielded the throne to a worthy sage.” Yao’s personal name was Fangxun, and his title was Taotang. His benevolence and virtue were like Heaven, and his wisdom was like a spirit. People felt close to him, finding him warm as the sun; when they looked up to him, he seemed as lofty as the clouds. Though wealthy, he was not proud; though honored, he was not arrogant. After Yao had ruled for seventy years, he selected Shun. Twenty years later, in old age, he had Shun act in the Son of Heaven’s place and manage state affairs, and recommended him to Heaven. Yao died twenty-eight years after abdicating. After mourning Yao for three years, Shun formally ascended the throne as Son of Heaven.

The phrase quoted in the text, “Shun understood human relationships and discerned the myriad things,” comes from the Mencius, “Lilou II.” It means that Shun understood the many kinds of things and could see clearly the ethical relationships between people. He acted in accordance with benevolence and righteousness; he did not deliberately make benevolence and righteousness into a practice.

“Only Heaven is supreme, and only Yao could model himself on it” comes from the Analects, “Taibo.” Confucius praised Yao’s lofty and expansive virtue as a ruler: only Heaven is supreme, and Yao could model himself on the Dao of Heaven. His virtue was so vast that the people could not describe it in words. His achievements were lofty, and the rites and music he established were brilliant and clear.

“Amid violent winds, thunder, and rain, Shun did not lose his way” comes from the Book of Documents, “Canon of Shun.” Shun’s virtue was profound, and his intelligence far-reaching. Yao ordered him to oversee the various statutes and affairs of government, then to receive guests from the four quarters and direct the officials. Finally, he sent him to inspect the mountains, forests, rivers, and marshes. Even when he encountered violent winds and torrential rain, with thunder and lightning all around, Shun did not lose his way.

“What did he do? He simply composed himself and sat facing south” is quoted from the Analects, “Weilinggong.” Confucius said that the one who could govern through Wuwei (non-action) was probably Shun. What did he do? He simply composed himself and occupied his place with reverence, governing the world like a ruler seated facing south.

The Mencius, “Lilou I,” also says that Yu, Hou Ji, and Yan Hui shared the same aspiration. When Yu thought of someone in the world drowning, it was as if he himself had caused that person to drown. When Hou Ji thought of someone in the world going hungry, it was as if he himself had made that person hungry. That is why they hastened to help the people. They loved the elders in their own families and extended that love to the elders of the world; they loved their own children and extended that love to the children of the world. In this way, governing the world became as easy as holding it in one’s palm.

All these sayings describe understanding others by starting from oneself, extending what is true of one family to every family, and then understanding the world through the circumstances of its people. This is precisely to model oneself on Heaven and Earth and follow the natural Dao. The sage understands the world without leaving home, sees clearly without looking with his own eyes, and accomplishes things without deliberate action. This is what the saying means.

The commentary mentions the episode recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals in which Duke Zhuang of Zheng attacked his younger brother, Gongshu Duan. The copyist says this episode was explained earlier and need not be repeated.

“Daily Increase in Learning” (Chapter 48)

In the pursuit of learning, knowledge and experience increase day by day. In cultivating the Dao, one must instead reduce distracting thoughts and contrived actions day by day.

The commentary draws on several stories about diligent scholars: bending over their books, pricking their thighs with an awl to stay awake, reading by the light reflected from snow, and collecting fireflies to illuminate their books. All these acts represent sustained effort in the pursuit of learning.

Sun Jing, whose courtesy name was Wenbao, is recorded in the Biographies of Worthies of Chu. He often shut himself away to study. When he grew tired, he tied his hair with a cord and fastened it to a roof beam so he would not fall asleep. In time, he became a learned Confucian scholar. When the emperor summoned him, he declined to answer the call.

Su Qin was from Luoyang in the Eastern Zhou. He studied with Master Guigu and traveled in search of learning for many years, but returned home when hardship overtook him. His brothers, sister-in-law, younger sister, wives, and concubines all mocked him. Ashamed when he heard of it, Su Qin shut himself away. After obtaining the strategies in the Taigong Yinfu, he studied them intently at his desk. Whenever he felt sleepy, he stabbed himself in the thigh with an awl, drawing blood down to his heels. Later, he persuaded the state of Zhao to employ him. Wearing the seals of office of six states, he put his strategy of alliance among the states into practice.

Sun Kang came from a poor family and was eager to learn, but could not afford lamp oil. He often read by the light reflected from snow, and later rose to become Grand Minister of the Censorate. Che Yin, whose courtesy name was Wuzi, was likewise a poor and studious man of the Song dynasty. At night, he put dozens of fireflies in a red gauze bag and studied by their light. Through such diligence, he too became a learned scholar.

Those who pursue learning all begin by studying each day to understand the principles, cultivate their achievements, and make up for their faults. In the end, they must grasp the principles without clinging to words, relinquish the desire to make their efforts useful, and let go of attachment. They accumulate knowledge through what they see and hear, advancing gradually in their studies; they lessen their attachment to accomplishments and practice as a way to realize the Dao. These men carried their worries throughout their lives and never spent even a day seeking comfort. They labored in thought, devoted themselves with resolve, and studied widely, until their minds and spirits were wholly absorbed in it. Only then did they achieve something.

The Book of Documents, “The Charge to Yue, Part Two,” says: “In learning, be humble and open; strive to study diligently and in good time, and your learning will grow.” It also says: “Sincerely keep these words in mind, and the Dao will accumulate within you.” This means that one’s purpose should be humble, as though one always felt something was lacking; one’s study should be diligent, as though one were always falling behind others. By accepting others with an open mind and spurring oneself on with diligence, the learning one cultivates will grow without end, like water welling up from a spring.

To cultivate the heart and nature, hold fast to a humble aspiration, as though there were still things you could not accomplish. Study diligently, as though you always felt you had not yet caught up. Receive others with an open mind, and make every effort to hold yourself to account. In this way, moral cultivation is like a spring just beginning to gush forth: its source never runs dry, and its waters keep flowing.

The “Cultivating Nature” chapter of the Zhuangzi says, “Vast knowledge unsettles the spirit; ornamentation conceals what is genuine.” If people govern the world solely through knowledge and learning, then keep adding ornamentation and increasing their erudition, ornamentation will conceal their nature, and vast learning will overwhelm their hearts. Understand that what is genuine is the root of ornamentation. When literary refinement flourishes, simplicity of nature disappears; when one pursues learning without restraint, the heart may instead be submerged by knowledge. Therefore, one must set aside excessive learning and ornamentation to experience the beauty of Wuwei (non-action).

The Great Image commentary on the Yi Jing’s “Increase” hexagram says, “Wind and thunder: Increase. The noble person, upon seeing goodness, moves toward it; upon having faults, corrects them.” Thunder moves ahead and wind follows behind, and all things thereby gain increase. “Moving toward” means admiring and pursuing good conduct; “correcting” means righting one’s faults and putting an end to them. Moving toward goodness and correcting faults are the greatest increase.

The Great Image commentary on the Yi Jing’s “Decrease” hexagram says, “Mountain above a lake: Decrease. The noble person curbs anger and restrains desire.” A lake beneath a mountain symbolizes decrease. When people are moved by external things, whether they encounter favorable or adverse circumstances, desire or anger arises. “Curbing” means calming anger that has already arisen; “restraining” means blocking desire before it takes shape. Anger and desire can each be either already arisen or not yet arisen, so they must be calmed or prevented accordingly.

In governing the world, one should generally act through Wuwei and noninterference. Once one meddles in everything and acts recklessly, one is no longer fit to govern the world.

The Qin state’s annexation of the six other states is a case in point.

Note: Qin Shi Huang, whose personal name was Zheng, was the son of King Zhuangxiang. In the twenty-sixth year of his reign, he defeated the Six States, unified the realm, and proclaimed himself the First Emperor. The Six States were Yan, Qi, Chu, Wei, Han, and Zhao. During the Warring States period, the states vied for supremacy. After Qin Shi Huang established his dominion, he pursued a policy of forming alliances across the states, yet the Qin dynasty ultimately fell in short order.

The Expanded Explanation says: Qin Shi Huang abolished the well-field system (an old system that divided land into square plots and allocated them for cultivation according to established rules), opened roads through the fields, built the straight roads, constructed the Epang Palace, built the Great Wall, and improved the roads in the area of the Five Ridges.

Note: According to the Records of the Grand Historian and the commentaries to the Guliang Commentary, in ancient times one li was three hundred paces.

According to the accounts in the Records of the Grand Historian and the commentaries to the Guliang Commentary, in ancient times three hundred paces made one li, a unit known as the “well-field system.” Each well comprised nine hundred mu of land, one portion of which was designated as public land. After Duke Xiao of Qin appointed Shang Yang, the well-field system was replaced by a system of field boundaries and paths. Land boundaries were laid out and land sales permitted, giving rise to the abuses of land consolidation. In the twelfth year of Duke Xiao, a land system based on opening up paths and boundaries was introduced. In the fourteenth year, the well-field system was abolished, paths and boundaries were laid out, and taxes were levied. “Today” here refers to the Qin system in force at the time.

Construction of the straight road began in the thirty-fifth year of the First Emperor of Qin. He ordered Meng Tian to build a road from Jiuyuan to Yunyang, cutting through mountains and filling valleys. It stretched for 1,800 li and remained unfinished after several years. The First Emperor considered Xianyang’s population large and the palaces inherited from earlier kings too small, so he began building a court palace in Shanglin Park, south of the Wei River. The first structure to be built was the front hall, named Epang. Commentators explain that the name “Epang” referred to buildings constructed at the eaves on all four sides of the hall. The front hall measured five hundred paces from east to west and fifty zhang from north to south. Ten thousand people could sit inside, and a flagpole five zhang tall could be erected below it. A road ran from beneath the hall straight to the Southern Mountains, where a marker was set up on the summit to represent a palace gate tower. The project was still unfinished when Xiang Yu ultimately burned it down.

Construction of the Great Wall began when the First Emperor toured the northern frontier in the thirty-second year of his reign. After Lu Sheng returned from overseas, he presented a book containing a record that said, “The one who will bring about the fall of Qin is the Hu.” The First Emperor then sent Meng Tian at the head of an army of 300,000 to campaign against the Xiongnu in the north. He recovered the region south of the Yellow River, established forty-four counties, and built the Great Wall along the terrain, setting up strategic passes. The wall extended for more than ten thousand li, from Lintao in the west to Liaodong in the east, and its power struck fear into the Xiongnu.

The Five Ridges comprise Dayu Ridge, Shian Ridge, Linhe Ridge, Guiyang Ridge, and Jieyang Ridge. In the thirty-third year of the First Emperor, Qin forces conquered the Nanyue region and established the commanderies of Guilin, Nanhai, and Xiang. They also conscripted 500,000 people who had been exiled or demoted and sent them to garrison the Five Ridges.

The Extended Meaning says: Xiang Yu broke through Hangu Pass, burned the Qin palaces, seized treasures and wealth, killed Ziying, and deposed the Yi Emperor.

The Collected Annotations explains: “Xiang” refers to Xiang Ji of Chu, whose courtesy name was Yu and who came from Bianxiang. In the third year of Qin Er Shi’s reign, he became the ruler of the realm, proclaimed himself Hegemon-King of Western Chu, and established his capital at Pengcheng. That year, he broke through Hangu Pass, slaughtered the people of Xianyang, killed Ziying, and burned the Qin palaces. The great fire did not die out for three months. He also seized treasures, wealth, and women, then returned east. The people of Qin were deeply disappointed.

Xiang Yu raised his forces for eight years and contended with the Duke of Pei for control of the realm. In the end, he was defeated at Gaixia and later beheaded. The supremacy over the realm ultimately passed to the Han. In the tenth month of the second year of Qin Er Shi’s reign, the King of Xiang secretly sent Ying Bu, King of Jiujiang, and others to attack the Yi Emperor and kill him in the river. When the King of Han reached Xincheng in Luoyang, Dong Gong, one of the Three Elders, stopped him and urged him, saying: “I have heard that those who follow Virtue flourish, while those who turn against it perish. An army cannot succeed without a just cause. Therefore, make clear that Xiang Yu is a traitor, and the enemy can then be subdued. Xiang Yu is without the Dao: he killed his own ruler and is an enemy of all under Heaven.”

This concludes Volume Thirteen of the Handwritten Commentary on the Extended Meaning of the Dao De Jing.

Handwritten Commentary on the Extended Meaning of the Dao De Jing, Volume Fourteen

Compiled by Wang Shouzheng, Reclusive Scholar of Qing’an, Wufeng

Chapter Forty-Nine: “The Sage Has No Fixed Mind”

The Sage has no fixed, unchanging private mind, but takes the people’s minds as his own.

The Extended Meaning quotes the Zhuangzi: “The Perfected One uses the mind like a mirror: it does not go out to meet things, nor does it deliberately hold them back.”

The “Responding to Emperors and Kings” chapter of the Zhuangzi says: Do not preside over your reputation; do not become a storehouse of schemes; do not shoulder the heavy burden of affairs; and do not be master of wisdom. Let body and mind open onto the boundless, and roam in a realm without traces. Fully receive all that Heaven has endowed, yet do not display any sense of having gained something. This is simply a matter of remaining empty and still. The heart of the Perfect Person is like a mirror: it neither actively welcomes nor sends things away, nor does it keep them in its heart. It simply responds truthfully, and so can meet the myriad things without being harmed.

The commentary says that this passage is quoted from the “Responding to Emperors and Kings” chapter of the Zhuangzi.

The Extended Meaning says: Once, when Duke Mu of Qin was traveling, he lost a fine horse that could cover a thousand li in a day.

The commentary says: This incident comes from the Zuo Tradition. It has already been recorded in the Extended Meaning, so it is not repeated here.

“I trust those who are trustworthy, and I also trust those who are not trustworthy.”

The Extended Meaning says: Once, someone gave live fish to Zichan of Zheng.

The commentary says: This passage is quoted from “Wan Zhang I” in the Mencius. It has already been described in detail in the Extended Meaning, so it is not repeated here. The book also quotes the phrase “earnest and composed, in keeping with his purpose and disposition,” which comes from the “Xiangdang” chapter of the Analects. “Earnest and composed” describes a sincere and modest manner, as if one were not skilled at speaking. It means being humble and respectful, and not placing oneself above others on the strength of one’s virtue or knowledge.

Chapter Fifty: From Birth to Death

From life one passes into death, and from death one returns to life.

The Extended Meaning says: Trace things back to their beginnings, then look again at their ends, and you will understand the principle of life and death.

The “Appended Statements” section of the Book of Changes says: “That which can gather and connect all things: look upward and observe the celestial patterns; look downward and examine the land. In this way, one understands the reasons for what is hidden and what is manifest. Trace things back to their beginnings and reflect on their endings; in this way, one understands the principles of life and death.” This means that by following the principles of the Changes to observe the heavens above and examine the land below, one can understand how things that are formless and subtle differ from those that have form and are apparent. Then, by using the principles of the Changes to investigate things’ beginnings and reflect on their endings, one can grasp how fortune and misfortune change from beginning to end, and thereby understand the principles of life and death.

“Of those who follow life, one in ten has thirteen; of those who follow death, one in ten has thirteen. In the way people live, their actions lead them to the realm of death, and one in ten has thirteen.”

The Extended Explanation says: Broadly, this can be understood in terms of the body’s nine apertures and four limbs. It can also be understood in terms of the three forms of action—body, speech, and mind—and the ten evils, as defined in Buddhism.

Han Fei held that “three in ten” refers to the body’s nine openings and four limbs: the two ears, two eyes, two nostrils, mouth, and the two openings for excretion make up the nine openings; the two hands and two feet together are the four limbs. Heshang Gong’s interpretation is the same. Another explanation takes the phrase to mean the “three forms of action” and the “ten evils.” The three forms are body, speech, and mind. The ten evils are, in order: killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, rebelling against one’s superiors, slandering the scriptures and teachings, using curses and deception, plotting in secret and harboring jealousy, sowing discord and provoking conflict, breaking the rules of fasting and precepts, and defiling the ritual altar.

Sun Deng explained that among all the living things in Heaven and Earth, many are alive, but few act in accordance with reason; most go against the natural order. Thus, perhaps only three in ten are able to preserve their lives in peace. If people cannot live in accordance with the Dao and die in accord with reason, then those who act in accord with reason are few, while those who go against it are many. Accordingly, only three in ten are able to meet death in keeping with Heaven’s mandate. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang’s commentary expresses the same view.

The Guangshengyi says: “To live in the world without treating life as a source of pleasure, and to dwell in it peacefully” is what is meant by “followers of life.” While alive, such a person does not let desire for profit disturb the heart, nor damage their nature through excessive nourishment. Instead, they rest in simplicity and stillness, in accord with emptiness, quietude, and peace. Then Shen (spirit) can guard the body, Qi (vital energy) can nourish the spirit, and the will gradually becomes balanced and settled. Such a person does not deliberately seek a longer life, yet life is naturally prolonged; they do not deliberately seek progress in the Dao, yet their cultivation naturally advances. This is Du Tianshi’s view. The author thinks that those who can preserve life in this way may be fewer than three in ten; even among thousands or hundreds, there may not be one or two. Seen in this light, such people are indeed rare.

The Yanyi says: Be at ease with the times and follow nature.

What one gains depends on one’s fortune, while what one loses is in accord with nature. Accepting one’s fortune calmly and following nature, one cannot have grief or joy disturb the heart. This is what the ancients called “release from suspension”: breaking free of restraints and attaining liberation. To be released from suspension is to have no worries or attachments in the heart.

Why is this so? Because they placed too much importance on preserving life and thereby burdened themselves.

Zhuangzi said that caring for the body first requires material means. Yet it is not uncommon for people to have abundant resources and still fail to care for their bodies well.

Those skilled at preserving life can travel on land without encountering rhinoceroses or tigers, and enter the ranks of an army without being harmed by weapons. The rhinoceros has nowhere to use its horn, the tiger nowhere to sink its claws, and weapons nowhere to show their sharp edges. Why is this so? Because they do not place themselves where death is likely.

Zhuangzi said: If people can let go of the self and move through life with ease, who could harm them?

Zhuangzi also used the example of crossing a river by boat. Two boats lashed together are called a “raft.” If an empty boat drifts into yours while you are crossing, even someone with a quick temper will not get angry, because the boat is empty. If someone is aboard, you first call out and ask them to steer clear. If they do not respond to your first call, and still do not respond to your second, by the third call you will be shouting at them in anger. A moment ago you were not angry, but now you are: before, the boat was empty; now, someone is aboard. If people can let go of the self and move through life with ease, who could harm them?

The Yanyi cites Liu Gang as an example of this. The related account appears in the Biographies of the Immortals and is discussed in detail in the Yanyi.

The Dao gives life to and nurtures the myriad things; De sustains and nourishes them. Each thing takes shape in its own way, and its appearance and characteristics arise from its particular conditions and nature.

The Expanded Meaning explains: some creatures are born naked and can only remain naked; those with scales or shells, fur, or feathers each display only the form suited to them.

The passage quoted here comes from “The Five Emperors” in the Family Sayings of Confucius. Confucius said it in reply to Zigong, adding, “I once heard Lao Dan say the same thing.” Thus, people born on hard ground have forceful dispositions, while those born on soft ground have gentle dispositions. People born on different kinds of land also differ in their bodily features.

The scripture continues: creatures that live on water are skilled swimmers and can endure cold; creatures that feed on earth have no conscious activity and can live without rest; creatures that feed on wood are strong but poor at regulating themselves. The Huainanzi says that being “strong but uncontrolled” is also a sign of poor self-regulation. Creatures that eat grass are good at running but rather dull; those that eat mulberry leaves spin silk cocoons and then turn into moths; meat-eaters are fierce and resolute; those who nourish themselves on Qi have clear spirits and long lives; those who eat grain are intelligent and perceptive; and those who do not eat do not die, but can communicate with the spirits.

Among birds, then, there are three hundred and sixty kinds, with the phoenix foremost. Among fur-bearing creatures, there are three hundred and sixty kinds, with the qilin foremost. Among shelled creatures, there are three hundred and sixty kinds, with the tortoise representing longevity and spiritual clarity. Among creatures that lie hidden, there are three hundred and sixty kinds, with humans foremost. These are all beautiful forms shaped by Heaven and Earth. Beings of different shapes and kinds each have their own allotted numbers. When a ruler’s actions accord with the Dao, and stillness also accords with the Dao—when the ruler follows the natural order of things and does not harm the life force of the myriad things—this is called benevolence and longevity.

The Expanded Meaning also says: From childhood through adulthood and old age to death, each stage is unavoidable; people, too, must pass through youth, maturity, old age, and death.

The “Tianrui” chapter of the Liezi says that the Yellow Emperor declared, “When a person’s spirit enters the gateway of the Dao, and their bones finally return to their root, what remains of me?” From birth to the end of life, people undergo four changes: infancy, youth and adulthood, old age, and death. In infancy, the breath is unified, the mind is pure, and body and mind are perfectly harmonious. Nothing external can harm the child; no other state of De can surpass this. In youth and adulthood, the vital energy of the blood is vigorous and restless. Desires and thoughts arise one after another, making a person vulnerable to disturbances from external things, and De declines accordingly. In old age, desires and thoughts gradually settle, and the body, too, is nearing rest. External things no longer stir a person first. Though this state is not as complete and pure as infancy, it comes closer to it than youth did. In death, all comes to rest, returning to the root of life.

Thus, there is nothing among the myriad things that does not revere the Dao and cherish De.

The Yanyi says: This is what the Zhuangzi calls the “True Ruler”—the innate reality that governs a person within—and also what the Zhuangzi calls the “True Master,” the inner ruler.

The “Qiwulun” chapter of the Zhuangzi says: “We do not know what governs it. It seems there is indeed a True Master, yet we cannot find its trace. Could it be that the myriad things take turns being ruler and subject to one another? There must be a True Ruler among them.”

The Dao is revered and De is cherished not because anyone grants them rank, but because they are so by their very nature.

The Yanyi uses the five ranks of nobility—duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron—as an analogy.

The Zhou dynasty established these five ranks of nobility. When the ancient sage kings set up their system, they also distinguished among the Son of Heaven, feudal lords, ministers, high officials, lower officials, and common people, assigning them different levels of status and placing the Son of Heaven at the top. In the human world, even a capable person must first be recommended and appointed by a ruler before receiving a title and gaining honor and esteem. Such distinction, however, must eventually come to an end.

The Dao gives life to and nurtures the myriad things, and so they revere it. De sustains the myriad things, and so they cherish it. The Dao continually gives life to and nurtures the myriad things, so its life-giving and nurturing power is forever revered. De continually brings the myriad things to completion, so its power to bring them to completion is forever cherished. How could this reverence and esteem ever come to an end?

The Dao gives rise to and nurtures all things, and so all things honor the Dao. De (Virtue/Power) sustains and nourishes all things, and so all things value De. The Dao enables life to continue without end, so its power to bring forth all things is always honored. De enables all things to grow and reach fulfillment, so its power to bring them to completion is always cherished. How could this work ever come to an end?

The Extended Commentary says: Mencius spoke of the ranks bestowed by Heaven and the ranks bestowed by human society.

In “Gaozi I” of the Mencius, it says: Benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness, along with delight in doing good without weariness—these are ranks bestowed by Heaven. The positions of duke, minister, and senior official are ranks bestowed by human society. The ranks bestowed by Heaven are gained through virtue; those bestowed by human society are gained through salary and status. The ancients cultivated their heavenly rank, and the human rank followed. People today cultivate their heavenly rank in order to seek a human rank. Once they gain the human rank, they cast aside the heavenly one. This is profoundly foolish, and in the end they are bound to lose everything. Mencius called benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness ranks bestowed by Heaven; the Dao and De stand above even these. Thus, when we say that the Dao is honored and De is treasured, we do not mean that someone has bestowed ranks upon them. They are so in their own nature, spontaneously.

The Extended Commentary also says: Zhuangzi once fished beside the Pu River.

This passage draws on “Autumn Floods” in the Zhuangzi. Pu is the name of a river in Dong Commandery; the commentary says it is the Pu River in present-day Puyang County, Puzhou. The King of Chu refers to King Wei of Chu. Having heard that Zhuangzi was wise and discerning, he wished to appoint him as a minister to assist him. He therefore sent envoys to convey his wishes, offering to entrust him with the affairs of the state. A ruler’s duties are demanding and inevitably bring worry and fatigue. The relevant meaning has already been explained in the commentary, so it is not copied out again here.

It gives life to and nourishes all things, yet does not claim them as its own; it acts, yet does not rely on its achievements; it helps all things grow, yet does not rule over them. This is called “Mysterious De”—profound and subtle Virtue.

The Extended Commentary says: To withdraw into obscurity after one’s work is done may be called profound.

This passage is an excerpt from the Xici (“Appended Statements”) of the Yi Jing (Classic of Changes). Confucius said: “What is the Yi for? The Yi opens the way for the myriad things, brings affairs to completion, and encompasses the principles of all under Heaven. That is all. Therefore, the sage uses the Yi to understand the intentions of people under Heaven, determine their affairs, and judge their doubts. The virtue of yarrow divination is complete and wondrous; the virtue of the trigrams is upright and wise; and the meaning of the six lines is clearly revealed. Through it, the sage purifies the heart and mind, gathers wisdom inward and conceals it, letting nothing show outwardly. As for good fortune, misfortune, and calamity, the sage shares the people’s concerns. By means of wondrous resonance, the sage foreknows what is to come; by wisdom, the sage judges the difficulties of all under Heaven. The virtue of yarrow divination is complete and wondrous; the virtue of the trigrams is upright and wise; the meaning of the six lines is clearly revealed. Through it, the sage purifies the heart and mind and conceals wisdom, able both to foreknow the future and to understand the past. Who could do this? Surely only the wise and discerning, divinely martial people of ancient times, who did not resort readily to killing.”

The commentary explains that Confucius’s phrase “withdraw and conceal it in the hidden depths” refers to the ancient sages, wise and discerning, who drew on the principles of the Yi, absorbed into their hearts the wondrous wisdom revealed by the trigrams, cultivated their virtue, and then concealed it without showing its traces. Is this not a profound and mysterious virtue?

Chapter Fifty-Two: “The Beginning of All Under Heaven”

“Block the openings of the senses and close the gates through which desires enter and leave, and you will be free from toil throughout your life.”

The expanded commentary says that each of the six faculties—the Buddhist term for the six senses and cognitive capacities—has objects it favors.

The copied commentary explains that the Repentance Liturgy of the Left Immortal Lord of Taiji says that, once people are born into a body, afflictions bind them. These afflictions all arise from the three forms of action—deeds of body, speech, and mind—and the six faculties: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. The consciousness associated with each faculty gives rise to various actions and karma. Thus the six faculties are like plants that produce flowers and fruit, each giving rise to the next in turn.

The expanded commentary also cites the “In the World of Men” chapter of the Zhuangzi: The Yellow Emperor asked Guangchengzi, “May I ask how to cultivate myself?”

The copied commentary says that this passage’s meaning has already been explained in detail above, so it will not be repeated here.

“Openings” here refers to the gateways through which the eyes, ears, mouth, and other senses perceive the external world. Once these gateways are open, the mind and spirit pursue what lies outside and engage with things in the world. If we can close them appropriately and keep the senses from constantly reaching after external things, the mind will not rush outward.

The Shuogua chapter of the Book of Changes says that “Dui” carries the meaning of joy and symbolizes a marsh. Nothing brings joy to all things more than the water of a marsh, which moistens and nourishes them. Dui also symbolizes the eyes, gateways, and mouth. Here it serves as a reminder that failing to restrain these gateways can invite trouble. If they are left unchecked in governing a state, affairs of government may fall into disorder; if they are left unchecked in personal cultivation, the practice of the Dao may be harmed. Knowing how to exercise restraint in due measure brings peace to oneself and sound governance to the state.

If we indulge the desires of the senses and let events continually stir the mind and spirit, we may never be able to recover, even over an entire lifetime. The Extended Commentary says that once the gateways of the five desires are opened, matters of the Six Dusts pour in, and the mind and spirit grow increasingly weary.

The passage quotes a speech by the bandit Zhi to Confucius in the Zhuangzi, “Robber Zhi.” Zhi says that human nature wants the eyes to see beauty, the ears to hear sounds, the nose to smell fragrance, and the mouth to taste flavors; the will and vital energy, in turn, want to be satisfied.

The “Six Dusts” are the external objects encountered by, and arousing, the six senses and faculties of awareness: the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind. The cited Sutra of the Collection of Practices says that the Jade Emperor once used a magnificent, wondrous voice to admonish the holy beings of the heavens in the ten directions: those burdened with grave offenses have, from time immemorial, indulged and lost themselves in their deluded nature, committed the Ten Evils, been stained by the Six Dusts, and become entangled in the three forms of karma—those of body, speech, and mind. Acting as they please without awakening, they have accumulated offenses in secret and in plain sight. To be “stained throughout by the Six Dusts” is to be deluded by external objects encountered through the senses; to be “entangled by the three forms of karma” is to be continually bound by the karma one creates through body, speech, and mind.

The Extended Commentary also says: “For example, during the Song dynasty there was a man named Zhang Bao…”

The Excerpt says: Zhang Bao was from Chengdu and admired the wife of the county commandant of Huayang.

Chapter 53: “If I Had Even a Slight Understanding of the Dao”

“Suppose I understood the Great Dao even a little. Walking along the Great Dao, what I would fear most is straying from it.”

The Commentary explains this with the story of Nie Que asking Wang Ni, “Do you know what all things agree on?”

The Excerpt cites “Discussion on Making All Things Equal” in the Zhuangzi: Nie Que was Wang Ni’s disciple. Wang Ni replied, “How could I know? Do you know what you don’t know?” Nie Que said, “How could I know?” Wang Ni asked again, “Then, are all things without awareness?” Nie Que answered, “How could I know? Still, let me try to put it this way: how do I know that what I call ‘knowing’ isn’t really not knowing?”

“The Great Dao is broad and level, yet people prefer taking narrow paths.”

The Commentary explains this with the example of Tantai Mieming, who did not take shortcuts.

The Excerpt cites “Yongye” in the Analects: Ziyou, whose given name was Yan and courtesy name Ziyu, was a disciple of Confucius and once served as the governor of Wucheng. Confucius asked him, “Have you found any talented people there?” Ziyou replied, “There is a man named Tantai Mieming. He never takes shortcuts when walking, and unless it is official business, he never comes to my home.”

“The court is deeply corrupt; the fields lie abandoned, and the granaries are empty.”

The Commentary explains that King Zhou of Shang built grand palaces and terraces, the state of Chu built the Zhanghua Terrace, and the Qin dynasty built the Epang Palace. These are all examples.

Palaces, towers, gardens, and ponds are among the signs of King Zhou of Shang’s extravagance and cruelty described in the “Great Oath, Part One” of the Book of Documents. King Wu of Zhou said that King Zhou showed no reverence for Heaven and brought calamity upon the people. He indulged in drink and lust, imposed tyranny at will, punished whole families, and appointed officials generation after generation. He cared only for building palaces and terraces, digging ponds, and wearing lavish clothes, thereby harming the people. He also persecuted loyal and worthy men by burning them, and injured pregnant women by cutting open their bellies. Heaven was enraged and commanded King Wen of Zhou to receive the Mandate of Heaven and wield its authority, but the great undertaking had not yet been completed.

The text also mentions Zhanghua Terrace in the state of Chu. During the Spring and Autumn period, King Ling of Chu completed the terrace and planned to invite the feudal lords to a ceremony marking its dedication. “Dedication” here means a sacrificial rite. Hu Zeng’s poem on historical events says: “Wild grass stretches everywhere, swallowing Zhanghua Terrace. It is laughable that King Ling of Chu loved luxury: before the terrace’s foundations had even dried, the music of flutes and pipes had already fallen silent. Pitifully, after his death, his body was abandoned in the home of a commoner.”

The Epang Palace of the Qin dynasty illustrates the same lesson. A poem on historical events says: “The Epang Palace had only just been completed, its walls not yet dry, when the forces of the Duke of Pei entered Chang’an.” An emperor may exhaust the people’s strength to build a great enterprise, but its collapse can come easily. The point is that people in high positions who neglect what is fundamental and pursue only wealth and splendor will damage their foundations. How could that be a lasting way to rule?

The Extended Meaning says: “Tall houses and ornamented walls.”

The “Song of the Five Sons” in the Book of Documents records that the five sons were younger brothers of Taikang. Though Taikang occupied the throne, he neglected the affairs of state, sought ease and pleasure, and corrupted his Virtue. His brothers therefore composed songs to admonish him. The second song says: “An ancient teaching gives this warning: at home, become infatuated with women; abroad, become infatuated with hunting; indulge in drink and music; build tall houses and carve ornaments into the walls. If a person has even one of these vices, there is none who will not meet with ruin.”

The Extended Meaning also says: “Fields left uncultivated.” This was the reason the author of the Book of Songs censured King You of Zhou.

The poem “Chu Ci” in the Minor Odes of the Kingdom from the Book of Songs satirizes King You of Zhou. At that time, government policies were oppressive and taxes were heavy. Much farmland lay abandoned, famine struck, and the people were eventually driven from their homes. Even the offerings at sacrifices could no longer be enjoyed by the spirits. The noble-minded therefore longed for the ancient times, when government was just and clear.

Those who dress in fine clothes, wear sharp swords, eat and drink their fill, and have wealth in abundance are called “robber braggarts”: people who flaunt their riches, gained by improper means. This is not conduct that accords with the Dao (the Way).

The commentary Yanyi explains: “Dressing in fine clothes” is like Emperor Yang of Sui, who cut colored silk into flowers to decorate his dragon boats and sailed out for pleasure.

In the fifth month of the first year of the Daye era, Emperor Yang of Sui ordered the construction of the Western Park. Its walls stretched for two hundred li. Within the park was a lake more than ten li around, and artificial immortal mountains were built, including Fangzhang, Penglai, and Yingzhou. They rose more than a hundred feet, with terraces and palace halls scattered across their slopes. On the lake’s northern side, a winding canal flowed into the water. Sixteen garden compounds were built along the canal, each beside the water and presided over by a fourth-rank consort. Their adornment was lavish in the extreme.

When the trees in the palace shed their leaves, colored silk was cut into flowers and leaves and fastened to the branches. Lotus flowers, water caltrops, gorgon fruits, and other plants in the ponds were also made from colored silk; when their colors faded, they were replaced. The sixteen compounds competed to prepare exquisite dishes, each trying to outdo the others in hopes of winning the emperor’s favor. Emperor Yang liked to ride through the Western Park by moonlight with several thousand palace women, playing the tune “Nighttime Stroll” on horseback.

In the eighth month, Emperor Yang set out for Jiangdu. The dragon boat he traveled in had four decks, stood forty-five feet high, and measured two hundred feet in length. The uppermost deck held the main hall, an inner hall, and an audience hall. The two middle decks contained 120 rooms, all decorated with gold and jade. The lowest deck housed the palace attendants. The empress traveled in a Xiangchi boat, somewhat smaller in scale. There were also nine Fuying boats, each with three decks and halls built above the water. In addition, several thousand boats carried the imperial consorts, princes, princesses, officials, Buddhist monks, Daoist priests, and foreign guests. More than eighty thousand boatmen pulled the vessels, all wearing brocade robes.

The guards traveled in more than a thousand additional boats, joined bow to stern in a procession stretching over two hundred li. Cavalry escorted the fleet along both banks. Every prefecture and county along the route had to present food from within a radius of five hundred li. The most heavily burdened jurisdictions sent more than a hundred carts, loaded with delicacies from land and water. Once the people of the inner palace had grown tired of eating and drinking, much of the remaining food was discarded and buried as the fleet was about to depart.

The Yanyi says: Wang Kai of the Jin dynasty once erected purple screen barriers to conceal the road as he traveled, extending for forty li; Shi Chong’s brocade screen barriers stretched for fifty li.

The Book of Jin records that Shi Chong, whose courtesy name was Jilun, was extravagant by nature. Wang Kai once made a forty-li-long walkway screen from purple silk to block the road or courtyard. Shi Chong then made one fifty li long from brocade, showing off his wealth. Later, Shi Chong was executed because of Lü Zhu, his favored concubine. As he was being taken to the Eastern Market before his execution, he sighed, “These people are after my property, that is all.” The executioner said, “You knew that wealth would bring disaster. Why didn’t you give it away earlier?” Shi Chong had no answer.

The commentary says: In a memorial to the throne, Ma Liao of the Eastern Han once pointed out that wide-sleeved clothing had become fashionable in the capital.

The Book of the Later Han records that in the first year of the Jianchu era under Emperor Zhang of the Eastern Han, the court sought to correct customs and change prevailing habits, and had to begin at their roots. The biographies say that when the King of Wu admired swordsmen, people took up sword practice in droves, and many bore scars. When the King of Chu admired women with slender waists, many women in the palace went hungry. A saying in Chang’an went: “When the capital favors high coiffures, people throughout the realm pad their hair up by a foot; when the capital favors broad eyebrows, people throughout the realm paint their brows halfway up their foreheads; when the capital favors wide sleeves, people throughout the realm use an entire bolt of cloth to make them.” These words may sound like jokes, but they accurately reflect how customs influence one another.

The commentary says: People wore sharp swords, just as the King of Wu admired swordsmen, and the result was that many people bore scars.

The Spring and Autumn Annals records that King Helü of Wu ordered Gan Jiang to forge swords. There were two swords: one was called Gan Jiang, the other Mo Ye. The earlier account gives the same description.

The “Treatise on Swords” in the Zhuangzi records that King Wen of Zhao—that is, King Huiwen of Zhao, whose personal name was He Wu—was the son of King Ling of Zhao. He loved swordsmanship, and more than three thousand swordsmen gathered at his gate. They fenced before him day and night, and hundreds were killed or wounded. He still took great pleasure in it. After three years, the state had grown weak, and the other feudal lords began plotting against Zhao.

The commentary says: He Zeng of the Jin dynasty spent ten thousand coins on food every day, yet still complained that there was nowhere to put his chopsticks.

During the reign of Emperor Wu of Jin, the chancellor He Zeng, whose courtesy name was Yingkao, spent more than ten thousand coins on food every day, yet still complained that nothing suited his taste. He would eat steamed buns only if they had been cut into a cross shape. A military officer named Qin Xiu remarked that He Zeng was excessively arrogant and extravagant, and that after his death he should be given the posthumous title “Miu Chou,” meaning “Erroneous and Ugly.” A reputation at odds with reality is called “erroneous”; relying on disorder and acting recklessly is called “ugly.”

The Commentary on the Meaning says: King Zhou of Shang piled wealth high in the Deer Terrace and grain high in the Jùqiáo granary.

King Zhou knew only how to accumulate wealth and refused to give it away. No matter how much he possessed, he was never satisfied. The Book of Documents, in “The Great Martiality,” records that after King Wu of Zhou conquered Shang, he distributed the wealth from the Deer Terrace and opened the Jùqiáo granary to release its grain. He extended his generosity throughout the realm, and the people were thereby won over with heartfelt loyalty.

Chapter 54: Those Who Establish Well Are Not Uprooted

Those who establish a firm foundation ensure that it will not be uprooted; those who hold fast to what they have established do not easily lose it. In this way, the sacrifices offered by their descendants can continue from generation to generation.

The Commentary on the Meaning says: First strengthen the roots, then tend to the branches and leaves. Here it draws on the meaning of the “Heaven and Earth” chapter of the Zhuangzi: in an age of supreme virtue, people did not exalt the worthy or deliberately appoint the capable. The ruler was as natural and inactive as a treetop, while the people were as simple and unselfconscious as wild deer. This means that those above govern through Wuwei (non-action), while the people remain unadorned and simple, unbound by the rites imposed by the ruler.

The Commentary on the Meaning also says: Those who know how to embrace and care for the people through the Dao win their allegiance, and the people do not leave them.

The commentator explains that the kind of ruler described by the Commentary on the Meaning as “embracing the people through the Dao” would be worthy of being called a person of the Dao, like the Grand Duke of Zhou. When those above govern through Wuwei, the people remain simple and at ease, like wild deer, unbound by the rites imposed by the ruler.

The Commentary on the Meaning also says: Those who know how to embrace and care for the people through the Dao win their allegiance, and the people do not leave them.

The commentary says, “One who is adept at embracing the people through the Dao” can be called a ruler who possesses the Dao, like Ancient Duke Danfu, known as King Tai of Zhou. When he left Bin, the people followed him eagerly, as if going to a market. This shows that they had attached themselves to him and were unwilling to leave. Hence the Jing says, “One who is adept at holding fast will not let things slip away.”

The Expanded Meaning says: One who is adept at following the Dao to embrace the Origin and guard the One—that is, to protect primordial Qi and keep the spirit focused—can preserve the spirit intact and prevent it from dissipating.

The commentary also says that the idea of embracing the Origin and guarding the One appears in the “In the World of Men” chapter of the Zhuangzi. There, Guangchengzi says to the Yellow Emperor: “Come, I will tell you about the utmost Dao. I hold fast to the One within my heart and dwell at ease in harmony. I have cultivated myself for twelve hundred years, yet my body has never grown old.” The Yellow Emperor bowed twice, touching his head to the ground, and said, “What Guangchengzi has said is truly the Way of Heaven.” Thus, the Expanded Meaning uses “adept at following the Dao to embrace the Origin and guard the One” to explain how a person can preserve the spirit intact and prevent it from dissipating. Guangchengzi may be called one who was adept at following the Dao to embrace the Origin and guard the One. His cultivation of himself for twelve hundred years without his body growing old exemplifies a spirit kept whole and undispersed. Hence the Jing says, “One who is adept at holding fast will not let things slip away.”

The Expanded Meaning also says: When King Tai of Zhou lived in Bin, the Di people came to raid the area. He offered them leather, cloth, silk, pearls, and jade, but this still did not spare him from their incursions.

The “Chapter and Verse on King Hui of Liang II” in the Mencius records: Teng was a small state. Even after doing everything it could to serve a great state, it still could not escape harm. What should it do? Mencius replied that long ago, Great King Tai lived in Bin, where the Di people came to attack. He successively offered them leather and silk, dogs and horses, and pearls and jade, yet still could not avoid their incursions. So he summoned the elders and told them, “What the Di people want is our land. I have heard that a gentleman does not harm the people in order to provide them with the means of survival. Why should you worry about being without a ruler? I will leave this place.”

Great King Tai left Bin, crossed Mount Liang, and built a settlement beneath Mount Qi. The people of Bin said, “He is a humane man; we cannot lose him.” Those who followed him came in such numbers that they were like people gathering at a market. In the generations that followed, the Zhou dynasty had rulers of moral character, from King Wen and King Wu through King Cheng and King Kang. Their descendants succeeded one another for thirty-seven generations, and the dynasty held the realm for 867 years. Its blessings endured, and its ancestral rites never ceased.

The Yanyi says: Even after the temple tablets of Houji and King Wen were later moved into temples whose rites had been discontinued, the suburban sacrifices held in their honor never ceased.

The Records of the Grand Historian recounts that when Confucius was in the state of Qi, he stayed at an inn outside the city. Duke Jing of Qi came to visit him. They had only just exchanged greetings when an attendant reported that an envoy from the Zhou court had just arrived with news that a fire had broken out at the ancestral temple of a former king. Duke Jing asked which former king’s temple had suffered the disaster. Confucius said, “It must be King Li’s temple.” Duke Jing asked how he knew. Confucius replied, “The Book of Songs says: ‘Bright and majestic Heaven, its decrees contain no error; when Heaven sends down blessings, it surely rewards those of virtue.’ This is an ancient poem handed down from the past. ‘Bright and majestic’ means luminous and splendid; ‘error’ means mistake. The same principle applies when Heaven sends down calamity. King Li altered the institutions of Kings Wen and Wu, made ornate clothing, built lofty and imposing palaces, and kept extravagantly luxurious carriages and horses. The state could no longer provide relief to those in need. Heaven’s calamity should therefore fall upon his ancestral temple. From this, we can infer that the temple struck by disaster must be King Li’s.”

Duke Jing then asked, “Why did Heaven not bring calamity upon King Li himself, but instead punish his ancestral temple?” Confucius said, “Perhaps it was because of Kings Wen and Wu. If calamity had befallen King Li himself, might the line of their descendants not have been severed as well? So the ancestral temple had to suffer the disaster, making King Li’s wrongdoing clear.” Before long, an attendant came to report that the temple struck by the fire was indeed King Li’s. Astonished, Duke Jing rose to his feet and bowed twice to Confucius, saying, “The wisdom of a sage truly far surpasses that of ordinary people!”

“When the Way of self-cultivation is put into practice throughout the realm, virtue can extend widely to every place.”

The commentary explains: When relatives live together in harmony, affairs can also be properly managed.

An excerpt from the Canon of Yao in the Book of Documents says: “Yao was able to discern and appoint virtuous men, bringing harmony to the nine branches of his family.” The commentary explains: Yao could recognize those of outstanding virtue and appoint them, bringing harmony among his relatives, from his great-grandfather, great-great-grandfather, grandfather, father, and himself through to his descendants, great-grandchildren, and great-great-grandchildren.

The commentary explains again: When relatives live together in harmony, affairs can also be properly managed.

The “Canon of Yao” in the Book of Documents says that Yao could recognize and appoint people of virtue, bringing harmony to his nine clans—the relatives from his great-grandfather’s line through to his great-grandchildren. Once the nine clans were at peace, Yao enabled his officials to fulfill their duties and the people to become informed and discerning. He then brought the various states into accord, so that the people could live in stability and harmony. Zhang explains: Yao’s manifesting virtue was self-cultivation; bringing harmony to the nine clans was putting his family in order; governing the people was governing the state; and bringing the myriad states into accord was governing the world. This shows that governance follows a sequence: when one has cultivated oneself, one can put one’s family in order; when the family is in order, one can govern the state well; and when the state is well governed, peace can prevail throughout the world.

The “Extended Meaning” says: The blessings that come from accumulating good deeds endure for generations.

The “Commentary on the Words of the Text” for the Kun hexagram in the Book of Changes says: A family that accumulates good deeds will surely leave blessings for its descendants; a family that accumulates evil deeds will surely leave misfortune behind. A minister’s killing his ruler or a son’s killing his father does not happen in a single day. The causes of calamity take shape gradually, because they were not recognized and stopped in time. How, then, could those who govern a state or a family fail to take this as a warning?

The “Extended Meaning” says: The various grains ripen in abundance.

In “Gengsang Chu” in the Zhuangzi, it says: “Disciples, on what grounds do you say that you and I are different? When spring’s Qi stirs, all the grasses grow; when autumn comes, the various crops ripen.”

The “Extended Meaning” says: This is what is meant by saying that the Dao’s offshoots can be used to govern the people, and even its smallest remnants are enough to govern a state.

In “Letting the World Be” in the Zhuangzi, it says: “The root of the Dao is used to cultivate oneself; its offshoots can be used to govern a state; even its leftover fragments can be used to govern the world.”

Therefore, observe oneself through oneself, the family through the family, the village through the village, the state through the state, and then the world through the world. How do I know the condition of the world? By this principle.

The Yijing says, “Observe your own conduct, and the noble person will be free of fault.” This means reflecting on yourself and looking within for the cause.

The quotation comes from the fifth line of the Guan hexagram in the Yijing: “Observe your own conduct, and the noble person will be free of fault.” The Great Image commentary explains, “Observing one’s own conduct means observing the people.” Mr. Bao explains that the fifth line occupies a position of honor: it is strong and firm in the proper place, outwardly yielding, and inwardly steadfast and centered. It can therefore serve as an example for all to look up to. Those below follow those above, as a shadow follows a body; the people likewise imitate their ruler. If a ruler displays bad conduct, harmful customs will spread; if the ruler guides them through good conduct, good customs will flourish. Transformation through teaching must begin with oneself in order to set an example for all under Heaven. To examine one’s own Virtue, one should first observe the people. When the noble person leads by example, there will be no fault. The fifth line of the Guan hexagram is therefore cited to explain how one can know the state of all under Heaven: by observing the conduct of those above and the people throughout the realm.

Chapter Fifty-Five: The Deeply Rooted De

One whose De is deeply rooted and held within is like a newborn infant. Poisonous insects will not sting it, fierce beasts will not maul it, and birds of prey will not strike it.

The Yanyi says: As the things that increase and grow accumulate day by day, the De that was originally deep and abundant grows thin.

Here the text cites the Zhuangzi, “The Sign of Virtue Complete.” Huizi asked Zhuangzi, “Are people by nature without emotions?” Zhuangzi replied, “Yes.” Huizi asked, “If people have no emotions, what makes them human?” Zhuangzi said, “The Dao gives them their appearance, and Heaven gives them their form. How could they not be called human?” Huizi asked again, “If they are called human, how can they have no emotions?” Zhuangzi replied, “That is not what I mean by ‘emotions.’ By ‘being without emotions,’ I mean that people do not harm themselves through likes and dislikes; they follow their nature and do not deliberately add to life.”

Here the text also cites the Zhuangzi, “Discussion on Making All Things Equal.” Nan Guo Ziqi, a figure in the Zhuangzi, leaned against a table, tilted his head toward the sky, and exhaled, his expression calm and untroubled, as though he had lost his companion. “Quietly, as if he had lost his mate” describes a mind that is empty and at peace, as though it had forgotten everything outside itself. The passage says that those who reach the highest state are like this too: like infants, they have no fixed attachments, and so external things cannot harm them.

The extended explanation says, “His heart is in harmony with all things. Who, then, could harm him?”

The passage begins by recounting a story from the “Yellow Emperor” chapter of the Liezi. Zhao Xiangzi went hunting in the mountains with a retinue of a hundred thousand, setting fire to the trees. The flames raged and spread for a hundred miles. Amid the fire, a man emerged from a rock face, moving up and down with the smoke and flames. Everyone thought he was a ghost or monster. When the fire had passed, the man walked out slowly, as if he had never been through the flames. Zhao Xiangzi found this strange and kept him there for a close examination. His appearance, facial openings, breathing, and voice were all no different from those of an ordinary person.

Zhao Xiangzi asked how he could live inside stone and enter fire. The man replied, “What stone are you talking about? And what fire?” Zhao Xiangzi said, “The place you just came out of was stone, and the place you walked through was fire.” The man said he had no idea.

When Marquis Wen of Wei heard the story, he asked Zixia, a disciple of Confucius, what kind of person the man was. Zixia said that, according to what he had heard from Confucius, someone whose heart and spirit were in harmony could merge with all things. External things could neither harm nor obstruct such a person. Thus, even walking among metal and stone or treading through water and fire was possible. Marquis Wen asked why Zixia did not do the same. Zixia replied that he was not yet able to rid himself of selfish thoughts and clever contrivances, though he could try to discuss the matter when he had time. Marquis Wen then asked why Confucius did not do it. Zixia said Confucius had the ability, but chose not to. Marquis Wen was delighted by this answer.

The “Explanatory Commentary” then gives an example: during the Spring and Autumn period, Dou Bobi of Chu had an affair with the daughter of the lord of Yun, and she gave birth to Ziwen. The note “Excerpt” explains that the relevant passage in the Spring and Autumn Annals, under Duke Xi’s twenty-first year, has already been described in detail above, so it is not copied again.

Finally, it quotes the Book of Songs: after Jiang Yuan, the mother of Hou Ji, gave birth to him, she placed him on the frozen ground. Birds flew over and covered and protected him with their wings. Then they flew away, and Hou Ji began to cry.

The “Birth of the People” in the Book of Songs: Greater Odes praises Hou Ji. The Zhou people honored their ancestor Hou Ji, whose mother was Jiang Yuan. The achievements of King Wen of Zhou and King Wu of Zhou had their roots in Hou Ji, so later generations elevated him as an ancestor who could be enshrined alongside Heaven. After Hou Ji was born, he was once placed in a narrow alley, but cattle and sheep came to protect and nourish him. Later he was placed in a forest, just as someone happened to come to cut down the trees. Then he was placed on ice, and birds covered and sheltered him with their wings before flying away. Only then did Hou Ji cry aloud.

An infant’s muscles and bones are weak, yet it can clench its fists tightly. It does not yet understand sexual union, yet its genitals can become erect. These are signs that its Jing and Qi are abundant. It can cry all day without its voice growing hoarse, a sign that its body and breath are in harmony.

The Extended Meaning cites the Zhuangzi, “The Great Ancestral Teacher”: “The True Person breathes down to the heels; ordinary people breathe only to the throat.” It also cites a passage saying that ancient True Persons did not dream when asleep, had no worries when awake, did not crave flavors when eating, and breathed deeply and calmly. The True Person’s breath seems to reach the heels—the heels being the roots of the feet. Ordinary people’s breath, by contrast, stops at the throat, like panting. Those who yield to their desires tend to breathe in short gasps; their throats seem obstructed, their breathing is uneven, and their voices sound like frogs croaking. The deeper their desires, the shallower their innate capacity for spiritual clarity.

Only by understanding how to bring things into harmony can one accord with the constant Way; only by understanding the constant Way can one be wise. Trying to prolong life through grasping for more instead invites disaster. Forcing the mind to control the breath is an act of overreaching. When things reach their peak, they grow old; this is called going against the Dao. To go against the Dao is to perish quickly.

The Extended Meaning says: Acting this way brings no benefit; instead, it causes harm.

The Mencius (Gongsun Chou, Part One) says: “Keep doing what ought to be done, but do not demand the result in advance. Do not forget it in your heart, but do not deliberately hurry it along. Do not be like the man from the state of Song who thought the seedlings were growing too slowly and pulled them all up, one by one. Exhausted, he went home and told his family, ‘I’m worn out today. I helped the seedlings grow taller.’ His son hurried out to look, but the seedlings had already withered. Few in the world understand that you must not help seedlings grow by pulling them up. To give up because you think cultivation is useless is like leaving the weeds in place and failing to tend the soil. To insist on hastening growth is like pulling up the seedlings. Neither approach is beneficial; the latter causes harm. If you can nourish body and mind by following the right path, you will reach your goal.”

This passage also comes from the Mencius (Gongsun Chou, Part One). It is Mencius’s answer to Gongsun Chou’s question about “Hao Ran Qi” (vast, upright vital energy). Mencius says: “It is difficult to explain. As a kind of Qi, it is utterly vast and strong. If you nourish it by following the right path and do it no harm, it can fill the space between Heaven and Earth.” Chengzi says: “Heaven and humanity are originally one; there is no need to distinguish them. Hao Ran Qi is the Qi within ourselves. If we nourish it without harming it, it fills Heaven and Earth. Once obscured by selfish desires, it suddenly seems to grow small.”

The Yanyi says: “The Book of Documents says that when people do good, Heaven sends down every kind of good fortune.”

The Book of Documents (Yi Xun) says: “Ah, heir to the throne, be careful in cultivating yourself and keep this firmly in mind. The teachings of the sages are broad and profound, and their excellent words are perfectly clear. Heaven’s will is not fixed: when people do good, Heaven sends down every kind of good fortune; when they do evil, Heaven sends down every kind of calamity. If you have De, even a small deed can benefit all the lands under Heaven. If you lack De, even a minor failing can bring the ancestral legacy to ruin.”

The Yanyi says: “The Dao flourished in antiquity, yet it does not grow old.”

The Zhuangzi, in “The Great Ancestral Teacher,” says that the Dao is itself the fundamental source and has existed from ancient times. It was already there before Heaven and Earth took shape. The spirits and the Celestial Emperor manifest through it, and Heaven and Earth are generated from it. It is above the Taiji (the primordial Qi and undivided state before Heaven and Earth separated), yet is not high; below the Six Directions (up, down, and the four quarters—that is, the realm between Heaven and Earth), yet is not deep. It came before Heaven and Earth, yet is not ancient; it preceded the remotest past, yet is not old. The chapter “A Thing Formed in Confusion” in the Dao Jing has already recorded this passage, so it is not copied again here.

Chapter Fifty-Six: “Those Who Know Do Not Speak”

“Those who know do not speak; those who speak do not know.” (Those who truly understand the Dao are not attached to speaking about it; those attached to speaking about it may not understand the Dao.)

The commentary says: Confucius, too, once hoped to stop speaking.

The Analects, “Yang Huo,” records Confucius as saying, “I would like to stop speaking.” Zigong asked, “If you do not speak, what will we, your students, have to pass on?” Confucius replied, “What has Heaven ever said? The four seasons run their course, and the myriad things continue to grow. What has Heaven ever said?”

The commentary says: Did Mencius truly enjoy debating?

The Mencius, “Teng Wen Gong II,” records Mencius as saying, “I, too, wish to set people’s hearts right, put an end to heretical doctrines, oppose deviant conduct, and refute reckless and excessive words, so as to carry on the work of the three sages. Do I enjoy debating? I have no choice but to do so.”

The commentary says: Set your bearing straight to awaken others.

The Zhuangzi, “Tian Zifang,” says that when the mind is clear, it can embrace all things. When one encounters someone who is not in accord with the Dao, one straightens one’s bearing to awaken them and dispel their confused thoughts. Without making distinctions or choosing sides, what is there to praise in such a person? The eighth chapter of the Dao Jing has already recorded this passage in detail.

The commentary says: When gazes meet, the Dao appears.

Confucius met Wenbo Xuezi, but the two did not speak. Zilu asked, “Master, you have wanted to meet Wenbo Xuezi for a long time. Now that you have met, why do you say nothing?” Confucius replied, “With someone like him, the Dao is already revealed as soon as our eyes meet. There is no need to express it in words.”

The Extended Meaning says: Wuweiwei was asked three times and did not answer any of them.

The Zhuangzi: Knowing Travels North says that Knowing traveled north along the Black Water. He climbed Hidden Well Hill and happened to meet Wuweiwei. Knowing asked him, “How should one think and worry in order to understand the Dao? How should one dwell and act in order to be at ease in the Dao? What path should one follow, and what principles should one observe, in order to attain the Dao?” Wuweiwei did not answer any of the three questions. It was not that he deliberately refused to answer; he simply did not know how to respond.

Unable to get an answer, Knowing returned south of White Water. He climbed Fox Gate Hill and met Kuangqu. Knowing asked him the same questions. “Ah, I know,” said Kuangqu. “I’ll tell you.” But when the words were on the tip of his tongue, he forgot what he meant to say.

Still without an answer, Knowing returned to the palace of the Yellow Emperor and put the questions to him. The Yellow Emperor said, “Do not think or worry, and you will begin to understand the Dao. Have nowhere to dwell and nothing to hold on to, and you will begin to be at ease in the Dao. Follow no path and rely on nothing, and you will begin to attain the Dao.”

Knowing asked the Yellow Emperor, “You and I both claim to know, while the other two do not. So which of us is right?” The Yellow Emperor said, “Wuweiwei truly understands; Kuangqu comes close to understanding. You and I, in the end, have not come close to the Dao. Those who truly understand do not speak; those who speak endlessly do not understand. Thus the sages carry out their teaching through silence.”

The Extended Meaning says: Wang Ni was asked four times and each time said that he did not know.

This passage brings together texts from The Zhuangzi’s “Responding to Emperors and Kings” chapter and Mencius’s “Li Lou I” chapter.

In “Responding to Emperors and Kings,” Nie Que asks Wang Ni for guidance. He asks four questions in succession, and each time Wang Ni replies that he does not know. Delighted, Nie Que leaps up and goes to tell Pu Yizi. Pu Yizi says, “Have you only now understood?”

The commentary says: “Even someone who understands musical pitch may not be able to explain its principles to others in words.”

Mencius’s “Li Lou I” says that although Shi Kuang, a musician of the Spring and Autumn period in the state of Jin, was renowned for his keen hearing, he could not tune the five notes—gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu—without the six pitch standards used in antiquity to calibrate musical tones. Yet how could anyone clearly teach the subtle, pure variations within those five notes without first grasping them inwardly and then expressing them through the hands in performance?

The commentary says: “A wheelwright, too, has experience and techniques that cannot be fully explained in words.”

These passages show that certain subtle skills and insights must be understood and practiced firsthand; words alone cannot convey them completely.

The “Way of Heaven” chapter of the Zhuangzi records that Duke Huan of Qi was reading in the hall while the wheelwright Bian made a wheel below. Bian put down his hammer and chisel, went up to Duke Huan, and asked, “May I ask what book you are reading?” The duke replied, “The words of the sages.” Bian asked, “Are those sages still alive?” The duke said, “They have been dead for some time.” Bian then said, “Then what you are reading is no more than the dregs left behind by the ancients.”

Duke Huan said, “How can a wheelwright presume to comment on what I am reading? If you can explain your reasoning, you may speak; if you cannot, it will cost you your life.” Wheelwright Bian replied, “I judge this from my own craft. When I make a wheel, if I work too slowly, it turns out loose and weak; if I work too quickly, the wood binds and the chisel cannot get through. The right pace is something my hands can achieve and my mind can grasp, yet I cannot explain it in words. There is a measure to it that lies beyond words. I cannot pass this skill on to my son, and he cannot learn it from me. That is why, at seventy years old, I am still making wheels by hand. The things the ancients could not pass on died with them. In that light, what you are reading is no more than the dregs left behind by the ancients.”

Thus, what is truly precious cannot be attained through closeness alone, nor through distance alone; it cannot be judged only by the benefits it brings, nor only by the harm it causes. Its value does not depend on being high or low in status. Precisely because it is not confined by such distinctions, it is cherished throughout the world.

The explanatory commentary says: Liezi lived in the gardens of Zheng for forty years, and no one recognized him. The ruler and the high officials regarded him just as they regarded ordinary people. The “Tianrui” chapter of the Liezi records that Liezi lived in the gardens of Zheng for forty years, unknown to everyone; the ruler and his ministers also treated him as an ordinary person.

The commentary further says: King Xuan of Qi wanted Mencius to live in the capital. He planned to provide him with a residence and support his disciples with a stipend of ten thousand zhong, so that the officials and people of the state could all take Mencius as their example.

The Expanded Meaning says: Suppose King Xuan of Qi wanted to give Mencius a residence in the capital and provide ten thousand measures of grain to support his disciples, so that all the officials and people of the state could look up to Mencius and take him as a model.

What follows is copied from “Gongsun Chou, Part Two” in the Mencius. One day, King Xuan of Qi said to Shi Zi, “I want to give Mencius a residence in the capital and provide ten thousand measures of grain to support his disciples, so that all the officials and people of the state will have someone to look up to and take as a model. Why don’t you tell Mencius about this on my behalf?” Shi Zi then conveyed the king’s words to Mencius through Chen Zi. Mencius said, “Is that so? How could Shi Zi know that this offer is unacceptable? If I wanted wealth and honor, would refusing one hundred thousand measures and accepting ten thousand mean that I wanted wealth and honor?”

The Expanded Meaning says: Mencius explains that what people usually consider precious is not truly worthy of cherishing. The honor Zhao Meng bestows, Zhao Meng can also take away.

What follows is copied from “Gaozi, Part One” in the Mencius. Mencius says, “The desire for honor is common to everyone. Each person has something precious within, but people have not recognized it. The external honor that people value is not true honor. The honor Zhao Meng bestows, Zhao Meng can also make lowly.” The commentary explains: What people consider precious is rank and status bestowed by others. “Good” refers to the innate goodness one already possesses. Zhao Meng was a minister of Jin who could make people prominent by granting them rank and stipend, and could also take these away and deprive them of their standing. But if honor is something one possesses innately, how could another person make it lowly?

The Expanded Meaning says: Emperor Wen of Han heard that the Yellow River Master lived in a hut he had built beside the river.

What follows is copied from the account in the Basic Annals of the Zuo Tradition. The relevant meaning has already been discussed in detail in the Expanded Meaning, so it is not copied again here.

End of Volume Fifteen of the Hand-Copied Expanded Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and Its Virtue.

Hand-Copied Expanded Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and Its Virtue, Volume Sixteen

Compiled by Wang Shouzheng, an unassuming recluse of Qing’an at Wufeng

“Governing the State with Uprightness” — Chapter Fifty-Seven

Govern the state through upright and balanced principles, direct military campaigns with flexible and surprising strategies, and bring all under Heaven to order through Wuwei (non-action) and minimal interference.

The Mencius says: “There is no need to blame the people, nor to criticize the policies. Only a person of lofty virtue can correct the ruler’s misguided heart. When the ruler is benevolent, none of the people will be unbenevolent; when the ruler is righteous, none will be unrighteous; when the ruler is upright, none will be crooked. If the ruler is first set right, the state will naturally be at peace.” This emphasizes that governing the state begins with correcting the ruler’s heart: the ruler’s virtue guides the whole country.

“Three Strategies and Nine Unorthodox Methods” refers to the strategic and unconventional methods discussed in military writings. The aim of using force is to stabilize the situation and quell banditry and unrest; that is the measure of its success.

How do I know that the world will come to this? The evidence is right here: the more bans and taboos there are in the world, the poorer the people become.

The extended commentary explains that, for example, the Qin dynasty decreed that anyone who privately discussed government affairs would be put to death.

The Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance records that in the thirty-fourth year of Qin Shi Huang’s reign, Chancellor Li Si submitted a memorial requesting that all histories other than the Qin state’s own records be burned. Any copies of the Book of Songs, the Book of Documents, or the writings of the Hundred Schools of Thought held privately by the people, if they were not under the custody of court scholars, were to be surrendered to the commandery governors and military commandants for collective burning. Anyone who dared to discuss the Book of Songs or the Book of Documents in private was to be put to death; anyone who used the past to criticize the present was to have their entire clan executed.

The extended commentary also says that after Wu Zetian of the Tang dynasty encouraged people to inform on one another, they walked with extreme caution, holding their breath and afraid to speak. Even when they met on the road, they communicated only with their eyes.

The commentary records that in the third month of the first year of Guangzhai (684), during the reign of Empress Wu of the Tang, the Grand Commandant had these texts mixed together and burned. Anyone who privately discussed the Book of Songs or the Book of Documents was put to death; anyone who used the words of antiquity to criticize the present was executed along with their entire family.

The Extended Explanation says: Empress Wu of the Tang began to establish a system of denunciation...