《道德真經廣聖義》Vol. 27

Chapter Introduction (Chapter 31, “Fine Weapons”)

The previous chapter explained that relying on military force and flaunting one’s might will ultimately bring retribution. This chapter makes the point directly: fine weapons are inauspicious objects, to be used only when there is no other choice. The first part cautions that a person who follows the Dao should not make weapons a regular instrument. The middle says that even victory is not worth praising, showing that taking pleasure in killing is no good. The final part makes the point through metaphor: victory in war should be treated with the rites of mourning, showing that war is never something to celebrate.

Explanation: It first warns ministers to assist the ruler through the Dao, not to rely on arms and flaunt their strength. This chapter states plainly that fine weapons are inauspicious objects: using arms to support the state inevitably leads to boastful aggression, which in turn leads to defeat and ruin. It therefore says directly that fine weapons are loathed by all things. When enemies invade, one’s own side may have no choice but to use force. A person who follows the Dao does not put themselves in such a position, does not regard defeating the enemy as admirable, and gives priority to stopping killing by just means. This is a warning against taking pleasure in killing. To treat victory with the rites of mourning is not to relish warfare.

Scripture

Fine weapons are inauspicious objects.

Commentary (Brief Notes on Terms)

“Fine” means good or of superior quality. “Weapons” refers to military strategy and force. “Auspicious” means good or fortunate. “Objects” means implements or tools. A noble person must be careful at the outset when cultivating De (Virtue/Power) and developing their capacities. One should keep one’s abilities within oneself and wait for the right time to act. The mind should roam in the gardens of Dao and De, and reflect among the forests of ancient records and writings—the classic texts of the former kings—so that the light of De shines across past and present, and one can help bring great undertakings to completion.

Explanation (Extended)

Tao and lue: “Tao” refers to the Six Secret Teachings. According to legend, Jiang Ziya, the Grand Duke of Qi, was fishing at Panxi when he split open a fish and found a jade tablet containing this book. Its six parts are: the Civil Teaching, on governing and founding a state without departing from the constant patterns of Heaven; the Martial Teaching, on overcoming disorder, pacifying calamity, and subduing the eight directions through might; the Dragon Teaching, on harmonizing Yin-Yang without departing from the seasons; the Tiger Teaching, on skillfully employing one’s “claws and fangs” so that groups of villains defeat themselves; the Leopard Teaching, on answering the times and overcoming crises through strategic judgment; and the Dog Teaching, on gathering even the faintest intelligence, which can sometimes lead to unexpected change. “Tao” also means concealment: the mechanisms and shifts of military strategy must not be lightly revealed to others, so the term carries the sense of hiding and keeping things obscure.

“Lue” refers to the Three Strategies. According to tradition, Zhang Liang, the Marquis of Liu in the Han dynasty, met the Elder of the Yellow Stone at the ruined bridge in Xiapi, who gave him the Three Strategies and said: “If you obtain this, you can become a teacher to emperors and kings.” The work also teaches the use of strategic pivots—the crucial mechanisms of action.

A Plain-Language Interpretation

The way of employing troops: Jiang Ziya once assisted King Wu in attacking Zhou and establishing the Zhou dynasty. Zhang Liang once assisted Emperor Gaozu of Han in defeating Xiang Yu and laying the foundations of the imperial house. Those who cultivate De (Virtue/Power) place their conduct above that of the Five Emperors and lead in good deeds. Those who cultivate their learning master the Six Arts and take the first steps in scholarship. Thus, the noble person values fundamentals: once the foundation is firmly established, the Dao (the Way) can grow from it. In learning, what matters is to be careful at the outset. Those who study the Confucian arts and the way of virtue become noble people; those who learn greed, arrogance, and cruelty become petty people.

Long ago, Mencius lost his father in childhood. Living near a burial ground, he began imitating funeral rites. His mother was wise; seeing that what he was learning was improper, she moved away. They then lived near a potter’s home, and Mencius began imitating pottery-making. His mother moved once more, this time near a school, where Mencius began studying the ancient classics. He later became a great Confucian scholar, second in the Dao to Zhou and Confucius, and renowned alongside Han Fei and Mozi. As a child, Confucius enjoyed playing with zu-dou, the ritual vessels used in sacrifices. Later, he became the founder of ritual and music, his Dao surpassing that of a hundred kings, his teaching spreading throughout the world. As a child, Hou Ji enjoyed playing at farming. Later, as the official in charge of agriculture, he spread the benefits of planting and cultivation throughout the realm. When Zhang Tang of Han was a child, his father blamed him after a mouse stole some meat. Zhang Tang smoked the mouse out of its hole, caught it with the leftover meat, then whipped and interrogated it, drawing up a statement as if he were an experienced magistrate. Later, he served the Han as a judicial official, carefully establishing penal laws and leaving behind legal rules and statutes. So those who learn what is good will surely accomplish good deeds. Whether one learns good or evil depends on the care taken at the beginning. “Jue” means “its”; here it refers to the beginning.

Keep one’s capacities within oneself: The Commentary on the Appended Statements of the Book of Changes says: “The duke shoots a hawk on the top of a high wall and captures it. Nothing is unfavorable.” Confucius said: “The hawk is a bird; the bow and arrow are instruments; the one who shoots is a person. The noble person keeps instruments within himself and waits for the right time to act. What could be unfavorable?” This means that when the noble person acts at the right time, he succeeds. If he acts at the wrong time, he encounters obstruction and achieves nothing. One commentary explains: “Duke” means impartiality. The high wall represents high office. A hawk on a high wall is difficult to shoot; likewise, a person in high office is difficult to remove. If someone in high office is greedy and cruel like a hawk, those who would remove him need only wait for the right moment, and they will surely prevail. The point is that a noble person may possess great virtue and lasting accomplishments, but must also wait for the right time before acting. The Records of the Grand Historian says: “When the noble person finds his time, he rides in a carriage; when he does not, he goes along like a tangled mass of weeds.”

Note: This passage develops its reasoning in the style of the Guangshengyi, moving from the use of troops, learning, and care at the outset to the Book of Changes teaching to “keep one’s capacities within oneself and wait for the right time,” and the historical saying that one “rides when the time is right.” Its meaning is close to the Dao De Jing’s teaching about the noble person keeping his instruments within himself. The plain-language rendering aims to retain the tone of the original commentary, with brief explanations of specialized terms at their first appearance.

Advancing and Withdrawing with the Times

When a state’s government is clear-sighted, one should speak and act frankly. When the state is in disorder, one should still act uprightly, while speaking with humility and restraint.

Seize the right moment, and you can accomplish great deeds and benefit all under Heaven. Miss it, and you should seek only to preserve your own integrity. This is what it means to understand when to advance and when to withdraw.

Where the Mind Roams and What It Examines

The mind should roam in Dao and De. What it examines should be found in the classical records and admonitions.

“Garden” means a cultivated park. “Canons” refers to the classic teachings and models. “Tombs” refers to the books of the Three Sovereigns, together called the “Three Tombs.” “Proclamations” and “instructions” are admonitory writings such as the Proclamation of Tang and the Proclamation on Wine. A “forest” is a dense stand of trees, here a metaphor for the vast array of historical records and books. “Bright” means to make something shine forth; “illustrious” means to make it manifest; “good” means excellent and beautiful. In this way, one can greatly bring an excellent name to prominence.

Opening the Way and Accomplishing Affairs

The Appended Statements to the Book of Changes say that the Changes “open things up and accomplish affairs”: this, they explain, is the way of all under Heaven. Here, the meaning is that the Way of the Changes can encompass all under Heaven and open a path for the myriad things, just as a noble person’s virtue and work shine forth and serve as a model for the world. One should also let the mind roam in the garden of Dao and De and among the forest of records and admonitions, making a good name known and accomplishing great things.

The Spring and Autumn Annals records that Duke Mu of Song instructed his ministers to establish Duke Shang as ruler. He said that his predecessor believed he could make an excellent name shine forth and become manifest. This is an example of the same idea. Those who cultivate the Way should also be careful about what they study: let the mind roam in the Great Way and examine Wuwei (non-action), and the Way may then be within reach. If one becomes mired in the realm of right and wrong, constrained by the confines of verbal teachings, lost in the shallows of sensual pleasures, or peering through the window of frivolity and falsehood, one moves ever farther from the Way.

A ruler who governs by studying the ways of the ancient sage kings and emperors might attain peace and prosperity. One who models himself on the enterprises of kings and the schemes of hegemons can hardly be at one with stillness and clarity. How much more should the arts of warfare be guarded against!

On a Fondness for Military Schemes and Stratagems

Yet some people make a hobby of military schemes and stratagems. Such schemes turn what is ordinary into the unexpected through deception. The books of military command teach that one should make a show of force before revealing one’s true strength; they all concern attack, seizure, and killing. They are therefore tools of an unsound kind.

Explanation of the Meaning

“Scheme” means to plan and calculate; “the unexpected” means change and deception. “Attack” and “seize” mean to assault and take by force; “seize” can also suggest how easily something may be taken.

The Six Secret Teachings, the Three Strategies, and military texts such as the Golden Edition and the Jade Command all serve the purposes of planning and tactical calculation. They are not auspicious or benevolent ways. Military strategy prizes deception, turning what is ordinary into the unexpected: first comes an empty show of force, then the use of real strength. Such manipulative and deceptive conduct is unfit for a noble person. Toward the state it is greedy and cruel; toward oneself it is harmful; toward other beings it is hateful. How could one make a practice of studying and carrying it out?

Aiming for Success in One’s Undertakings, and Making Good Use of One’s Capacities

In practicing one’s undertakings, one should be able to achieve success. Once an undertaking is complete, put it to use—and in using it, seek to act with full understanding. Train yourself to become a “good instrument”: in advancing, benefit all things; in withdrawing, preserve yourself; in putting your abilities to work, accomplish great deeds; and in attaining prominence, make Virtue shine forth.

Yet people who study the way of military strategists now take deceit as their foundation and deception as their skill. They count killing and capturing as achievements, and campaigns and executions as their work. Deceit means a lack of trust; killing means a lack of humaneness. Those who assist a ruler in governing a state this way will turn him into a ruler devoted to warfare. Those who practice it themselves will become people given to falsehood and deceit. This is truly an unworthy pursuit.

When the Venerable Lord Lao (Laozi) spoke of the classic, the “battles” he mentioned referred only to ancient conflicts such as those at Banquan, Zhuolu, and Danpu. At that time, military texts such as the Six Secret Teachings and the Three Strategies had not yet appeared. Yet warfare ultimately depends on schemes and calculations, on mutual deception and ruthless rivalry, on treating victory as achievement and killing as a virtue. These are not pursuits for those who cultivate the Dao, so the classic issues a stern warning. The military strategies cited here are modern examples used to confirm a principle from ancient times.

“All things may abhor it; therefore, those who have the Dao do not dwell in it.”

Commentary: “Fine” means something one favors; “military” refers to strategy. Ordinary people may refine their words and establish sincerity, yet fail to cultivate Virtue as the foundation of their capacities, while favoring military schemes and strategies. Such strategies serve only to attack, seize, and kill, so they are instruments of ill omen. If all things abhor them, how much more will those who have the Dao refuse to place themselves in such work?

Further explanation: To store up Virtue within oneself is the true accomplishment. If one becomes an instrument of ill omen, all things will abhor it—how much more so will a noble person who has the Dao? That is why the classic says, “Those who have the Dao do not dwell in it.”

Meaning: A person of the Dao nourishes the self with Virtue and helps all things through goodness. In action, they are simple and upright; in stillness, they accord with emptiness. They do not give rise to a desire to kill or wage war, and refuse to exalt military strategy. Warfare is used to kill, and all things look upon it with abhorrence. The idea of refining one’s words and establishing sincerity comes from the Book of Changes, “Qian” hexagram, line nine in the third place: a noble person cultivates Virtue through loyalty and trustworthiness, and establishes their work by refining their words and making them sincere.

“In ordinary life, the noble person honors the left; in warfare, the right.”

Commentary: The left belongs to Yang. When Yang is harmonious, it brings forth life, so in ordinary life the left is honored. The right belongs to Yin. When Yin gathers, it brings severity and death, so in warfare the right is honored.

Further explanation: The left is Yang and the right is Yin. Yang favors life; Yin favors killing. Because one favors life, the left is honored in ordinary life; because one favors killing, the right is honored in warfare.

(This passage chiefly explains that everyday life and warfare hold opposite values: ordinary life honors life, while warfare honors killing. This follows the same thread as Laozi’s admonition against warfare and his abhorrence of it.)

“Emperor” emerges from the position of Zhen, and all things are born in the east: spring governs growth and renewal, while summer governs flourishing and nurture. The Way of Heaven turns to the left; therefore the left is associated with Yang and follows the way of generation. In the west, all things are cut down; autumn governs killing and punishment. In the north, they lie hidden and stored away; winter governs closure and concealment. The moon corresponds to Yin and governs punishment, while Metal dwells in the west and governs warfare. Therefore the right is associated with Yin and follows the way of killing and punishment. The noble person embodies benevolence to benefit all things, so in ordinary times values the left. In warfare, one attends to punitive justice and upholds punishment, so in battle values the right.

“Weapons are instruments of ill omen.”

Commentary: “Omen” means good. Those who delight in weapons esteem killing, and so take up instruments of wrongdoing.

“They are not instruments of the noble person.”

Commentary: The noble person takes Dao and De as their instruments and does not esteem military stratagems.

Explanatory note: The earlier passage says, “Fine weapons are instruments of ill omen,” to make clear that warfare esteems the right and delights in killing; therefore a person who follows the Dao does not take part in it. Here, the statement “Weapons are instruments of ill omen,” read alongside the earlier passage, shows that they “are not instruments of the noble person.” The noble person takes Dao and De as their instruments and therefore has no use for military stratagems.

Interpretation: What the noble person studies is the Dao and De of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, carrying forward the benevolence and righteousness of Tang, Yu, Xia, and Yin, and taking the rites and music of Kings Wen and Wu, the Zhou dynasty, and Confucius as models. Through these, they order Heaven and Earth, aid the people, and leave an example for later generations. When the times are favorable, they bring things to fruition and accomplish their work; when the times are unfavorable, they withdraw and keep their principles within. Thus nothing is beyond their capacity. The earlier passage says that fine weapons are instruments of ill omen and that those who follow the Dao do not take part in them. This shows that the noble person’s first concern in study is Dao and De, not military stratagems. Studying military stratagems is not the noble person’s aim. Once such study is complete, one will inevitably wish to put it to use; the purpose of using weapons is made clear in the passage below.

“When their use cannot be avoided, calm restraint is best.”

Commentary: The Rong and Di tribes have come to invade, so their use cannot be avoided. One who wins well does not contend, so calm restraint is best.

Explanatory note: Civil virtue is the means by which one orders Heaven and Earth and sets disorder right through principle; military strategy is an auxiliary means. Hence the saying: through civil means, one orders Heaven and Earth; through martial means, one overcomes and settles calamity and disorder. Though Heaven produced the Five Materials and none can be dispensed with, the use of military force must be governed by limits. We can see that its use has primary and secondary purposes, and that its exercise may follow or oppose the proper course: it is appropriate only when circumstances leave no alternative, and then one responds to them. The incursions of the Four Barbarians and the restrained punitive expeditions of the royal army express this principle.

A Plain-Language Interpretation

The general meaning of the scripture

One should show kindness through beneficence and bring people to peace through virtue. Treat it as lightly as a mosquito bite, so that no anger takes hold in the heart. From this, we can infer that calm detachment is the highest virtue.

Commentary (from the Guangsheng commentary)

When sages established laws and set out teachings, they adapted them to the changing times and went along with the changing conditions of the age. The highest rulers transformed people through the Dao (the Way); those below them used De (Virtue/Power); those below them used benevolence. When the Dao and De declined, shallow conduct and deceit became widespread, and the arts of civil and military rule came into use.

The civil arts taught through ritual, music, benevolence, and righteousness. The military arts taught through the use of the unexpected and the conventional, strategy, and expedience. Civil rule patterned itself on Heaven and ordered the Earth; military rule subdued calamity and disorder. Civil rule was fundamental, military rule secondary; civil rule was the basis, military rule its application. Confucius said, “To send the people to war without teaching them is to abandon them,” and also, “Whenever there are civil affairs, there must be military preparations.” Thus, at the meeting in Jiagu, Confucius displayed military preparedness and had dwarfs executed. The Marquis of Qi was frightened and returned the land of Guoyin; the rites were completed, and the meeting ended. This shows that military force supports civil rule, while civil rule directs military force.

“To pattern Heaven and order Earth”: north and south are the warp, east and west the weft. It means probing the workings of spirits and discerning the changes of creation. The schools of thought are purified, and the many institutions brought into proper order. As the saying goes, “Observe the patterns of human society and thereby transform the world.” This is why King Wen received “Wen” as his posthumous title.

“To subdue calamity and disorder”: violence inflicted on others is called calamity; turning against virtue and acting rebelliously is called disorder; victory is called subduing. Thus, when the Yellow Emperor executed Chiyou, when Shun put down the Sanmiao, when Tang defeated Jie, when the Zhou defeated Zhou, when Qin destroyed the Six States, and when the Han pacified the Three Qins, they were eliminating tyranny, cutting off the roots of disorder, and saving the people. They did not kill for the sake of victory. This is why King Wu received “Wu” as his posthumous title. From this, we can understand what is fundamental and what is secondary, and judge what goes against the proper order and what accords with it: force should be used only when there is no other choice.

When the Four Barbarians invaded: during the reign of King Xuan of Zhou, the Quanrong repeatedly invaded the Central States, so troops were sent to resist them. The Book of Songs therefore speaks of attacking the Xianyun. Heaven gave birth to the Five Materials—Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth. The Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) circulate in turn, and emperors take them up and use them like tools or materials. Hence the name “Five Materials”: what is used passes from one to another in a cycle, and none can be omitted.

An army acting under an emperor’s command is called the royal army. “Army” means a multitude; in the Book of Changes, it is the Army hexagram, with Kun above and Kan below. “A measured campaign” is a modest way of speaking: it means that we are campaigning against them. Whenever the term “royal army” is used…

Bells and drums are military instruments. “Waging war without bells and drums” means sending troops to fight without beating them; “invading the royal army” means attacking the forces of the royal house. When an army sets out, it must first display its might and authority so that the enemy fears and submits. At the same time, it must show benevolence and good faith, so that the enemy willingly comes over and pledges allegiance. This is not about seizing a formidable rival for the sake of a moment’s triumph, nor about slaughtering on a large scale to vent one’s anger.

A military campaign must have just cause; only then is it “in accord with the Way.” Without just cause, it is “contrary to the Way.” The raids of the surrounding frontier peoples are like mosquito bites on the skin: they are no grave calamity for the Central States and do not, in themselves, undermine the roots of virtue. They should be treated with kindness and transformed through generous De. One should harbor no anger, and regard calm detachment and peace as the highest good.

In ancient times, Yiliao played with pellets and a crisis was averted; Shuao slept peacefully and the enemy withdrew. To prevail without taking up arms—that is the highest strategy.

To win a battle and yet not regard victory as a good thing is one matter; to celebrate victory as something glorious is another. The latter is to take pleasure in killing.

When people cannot be transformed through De and brought to submit, but instead seek victory through force, then even after defeating the enemy they still feel their De is shallow and do not regard victory as something glorious. For victory necessarily means many deaths; to celebrate it as glorious is to take pleasure in killing.

The sage treats the peoples of the four frontiers with a policy of kindness, quells disorder, and transforms them through the civilizing influence of virtue, leading them toward goodness without resorting to force. Only when De is insufficient does one use military force to compel victory. To take pleasure in victory after defeating the enemy, without shame or compassion, is to take pleasure in killing. Long ago, when Jizha watched the dance of “The Great Martial,” he said, “Even when a sage does this, he still feels shame. It is truly difficult for a sage to act!” He meant that Tang’s campaign against Jie of Xia was the first use of arms, and so there was shame in it. The Analects says, “King Wu’s achievements were perfect, yet they did not attain the highest perfection.” This means that he gained all under Heaven through conquest, and so his actions could not be called wholly good.

One who takes pleasure in killing cannot fulfill their aspirations under Heaven.

Defeating an enemy inevitably costs lives, so victory should not be regarded as something glorious. Victory necessarily means many deaths; to celebrate it as glorious is to take pleasure in killing many people. Those who delight in killing many will surely find that people do not submit to them. How difficult, then, to fulfill one’s aspirations!

Heaven and Earth delight in the growth of all things and nurture them all. A benevolent person should follow the Way of Heaven, making preservation and relief their chief concerns. How can one casually resort to deceit and violence to satisfy greedy and cruel desires? The greedy and cruel will surely find that people do not submit to them. How difficult, then, to fulfill one’s aspirations! Thus, one who delights in slaughter cannot fulfill their aspirations under Heaven.

The heart of a benevolent person weighs things fairly and gives accordingly, following the warmth of Yang energy and cherishing others.

Plain-Language Interpretation

First section: Nurture all things through compassion and kindness

Cultivate compassion, benevolence, and generosity to comfort and care for all living beings. In treating all things, keep pity and concern in your heart, unwilling for anything to be left without a place or made to suffer.

The Book of Rites says: “When you see them alive, you cannot bear to see them killed; when you hear their cries, you cannot bear to eat their flesh.” It also records the custom of burying a dog under a torn umbrella, a horse under a worn curtain, and an ox beneath a broken cart—using whatever can shelter them to bury dead animals. Chen Anshi, a prominent Han official, would not go out casually in the summer heat, for fear of stepping on insects or ants. Trees and plants should be cut in their proper season; fields should not be burned while insects have yet to hibernate. These are all principles of benevolence and compassion. To follow the Dao of Heaven and nurture all things: that is the principle. How could one bear to slaughter many lives for the sake of fame, or take pleasure in killing to pursue wealth and status?

If one treats frequent killing as a virtue and winning through deceit as a skill, indulging in cruelty, greed, and tyranny, people will inevitably fear one. When people are afraid, who will dare draw near or pledge their support? Without the closeness and backing of the people, yet acting out one’s tyrannical impulses alone, it is very difficult to achieve one’s aims in the world. The ruin of the Marquis of Donghun (Xiao Baojuan), the deposition of the King of Changyi (Liu He), and the disastrous fall and death of Gao Yang (Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi) may all serve as warnings.

Second section: In auspicious matters, the left is honored; in inauspicious matters, the right is honored

The left belongs to Yang and governs growth and renewal, so the left is honored in auspicious matters. The right belongs to Yin and governs killing, so the right is honored in inauspicious matters.

The Book of Rites: Tan Gong records that Confucius and his disciples stood with hands clasped, facing to the right, as is customary in mourning rites, which honor the right. The disciples followed suit. Confucius said, “You are eager to learn! I stand to the right because I am mourning my elder sister.” Only then did the disciples switch back to honoring the left.

Explanation: The left is Yang De, which governs life; in ordinary settings and ceremonies, the left therefore takes precedence. Today, the positions of host and guest and the customary clasping of hands still place the left first and give it honor. The right is Yin and governs death, so in contemporary funeral rites the right is generally honored. Confucius clasped his hands with the right foremost because he was mourning his elder sister. His disciples did not know the reason and imitated him. When Confucius remarked on their eagerness to learn, they learned that this was not an auspicious rite and changed back to honoring the left. Tan Gong is the title of the fourth chapter of the Book of Rites.

Yan Hui studied the Dao of Confucius and held a place among the disciples second only to the sage. He once asked Confucius: “When you speak, Hui speaks too; when you debate, Hui debates too. When you say nothing, people trust you; when you do not seek to attach yourself to others, you are welcomed everywhere; without possessing any implements, you accomplish things. I do not know how you do this. I can only stare at the dusty road, unable to catch up with you.” If a disciple so devoted to learning could still not fully understand the Master’s Dao, how much less could someone who does not study?

Third section: The lieutenant general stands on the left; the supreme commander stands on the right

(In the received text of the Dao De Jing, this sentence follows “In auspicious matters, the left is honored; in inauspicious matters, the right is honored.” The Guang Sheng Yi may explain it in detail elsewhere. Read together with the preceding section, the ritual convention of the left as auspicious and the right as inauspicious is also reflected in military ceremony: the lieutenant general stands on the left, while the supreme commander stands on the right, honoring the right as a sign of killing and warfare.)

A lower-ranking deputy general stands on the left because he does not wield the authority to kill on his own. The senior general, the commander in chief, holds a position of honor and stands on the right because he directs military strategy. The scripture says that military action should be treated according to the rites for mourning.

Another commentary says that mourning rites honor the right. Since the senior general stands on the right, warfare is being placed and regarded according to the rules of mourning.

The senior general holds the authority to order executions, so he stands on the right; the deputy general does not have sole authority to kill, so he stands on the left. In ordinary custom today, the left is honored and the right is lesser. The senior general’s place on the right therefore means that the way of using troops accords with mourning rites: those rites honor the right, and the senior general stands there, so warfare is treated as a funeral matter.

Mourning rites honor the right because death belongs to Yin. The senior general has sole authority to kill and is therefore responsible for matters of death. When the state sends out troops, the senior general ascends the platform, and the Son of Heaven fasts and hands him the axe and battle-axe, granting him authority to kill. The troops also leave through a gate opened for ill omens: he is responsible for matters of death. Hence the saying, “Weapons are instruments of ill omen,” and also, “Weapons are the instruments that govern life and death.” If a general has a plan, those who might have died can live; if he has no plan, those who might have lived will die. War is a perilous undertaking, casting people into death—how could it be anything other than a funeral matter? The deputy general does not have sole authority to kill, so he stands on the left, the auspicious side.

“When many people are killed, mourn and weep for them.”

The commentary says that human lives are supremely precious. To kill people in battle is unbearable, so one should grieve and weep.

The subcommentary says that seeking victory in battle inevitably means killing many people. Victory is no cause for celebration; one should therefore grieve and weep. The people are the foundation of the state: when that foundation is firm, the state is secure. Now that battle has killed people, compassion and pity make it fitting to grieve and weep for them.

Victory through warfare inevitably means killing many people. Human beings receive Qi from the Nine Heavens and form their Shen over ten months in the womb. They contain Yin and exhale Yang, taking Heaven and Earth as their model; among all things, humans are the most perceptive. When a state has capable people, it is like a fish in water. The Songs of the Five Sons in the Book of Documents says: “Our august ancestor gave this instruction: the people may be drawn close, but they must not be looked down upon. The people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is firm, the state is secure.” This refers to Taikang, who occupied the throne without fulfilling its duties and indulged in hunting without restraint. Hou Yi of Youqiong, seeing that the people could no longer bear it, turned him back at the river. Taikang had destroyed his Virtue, so the people abandoned him, and his rule could not endure. Thus, when the people are weakened, the state is in danger; when they are united, the state becomes powerful. If one pursues fame and achievement through a love of war, how could one fail to exercise caution?

To covet land and kill people, driving living beings elsewhere into a place of death—how could a person of the Dao, or a gentleman, fail to grieve over this? That is why the lower section says, “When opposing armies meet, the mournful side prevails.” (“When two armies face one another, the side moved by compassion can prevail.”) This is what “grieving in tears” means here.

“Treat victory in war with the rites of mourning”

Commentary: When brave warriors and stalwart soldiers win a battle and receive titles and rewards, their rank is placed on the right. In ancient times, the right was esteemed. But military affairs are inauspicious, so this victory should be treated with the rites of mourning—as though it were merely an inauspicious instrument. This does not necessarily mean that one must wear white, dress in mourning, carry a mourning staff, and weep before it can count as “the rites of mourning.”

Explanatory note: To win a battle and receive a title, with military merit placing one in a position of honor, is still to “treat victory with the rites of mourning.” Although the right is esteemed, it is not an auspicious position in military affairs. That is why the text says to treat victory with the rites of mourning. It means simply to regard war as an inauspicious instrument. Why insist that one must wear mourning clothes and carry a mourning staff for it to count as mourning rites?

Commentators who explain this passage often say that such a ritual really existed in ancient times. But a search through the ancient historical texts—the Three Tombs and Five Canons, among others—turns up no evidence for it, so this claim remains unconvincing and is omitted here. Some cite the Duke of Qin “facing the army and weeping.” But he was mourning a defeated army, not celebrating a victory.

Interpretation: Winning a battle and receiving a title, then being promoted to the rank of senior general for outstanding service, is also one way of “treating it with the rites of mourning.” Weapons are inauspicious instruments, and war is a means of killing. In victory, the other side is killed; in defeat, one’s own side is killed. In either case, it is the people who die. How could this not cause sorrow? The sage grieves for this, and the gentleman feels compassion; therefore, victory should be treated with the attitude of mourning.

“Coarse mourning clothes and a staff” refers to mourning garments and the staff carried in mourning. Whenever people have been killed, one should feel compassion. Why insist that wearing mourning clothes and carrying a staff are the only ways to show grief?

Some also say that in ancient times, when the ruler sent out an army, the Son of Heaven wore plain clothes and wept as he saw it off. Yet neither the ritual classics nor the ancient historical texts support this account, so it is considered unfounded. The explanatory note specifically clarifies the terms “Canons” and “Tombs”: “Canons” refers to the Five Canons of the Five Emperors, and “Tombs” to the Three Tombs of the Three Sovereigns.

The Duke of Qin facing the army and weeping: This story appears in the thirty-second year of Duke Xi in the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Duke of Qin attacked Zheng. The Qin official Qizi was stationed in Zheng and sent word to Qin that the people of Zheng had put him in charge of the northern gate keys; if Qin sent troops secretly, they could seize the state. The Duke of Qin consulted the minister Jian Shu. Jian Shu said that he had never heard of exhausting an army by marching far to launch a surprise attack: the troops would be worn out, while the distant ruler would be prepared. The people of Zheng would surely learn of Qin’s movements; who could keep a thousand-mile march secret? The Duke of Qin ignored his advice and sent Meng Ming, Xi Qi, and Bai Yi to lead the army. They were later defeated at Xiao. The Duke of Qin faced the defeated troops and wept in grief for their loss; he was not celebrating a victory.

Background: This passage explains chapters of the Dao De Jing that say, “Weapons are inauspicious instruments” and “Treat victory in war with the rites of mourning.” Laozi opposes treating killing as an achievement or taking pleasure in war. Even in victory, one should not celebrate with feasts and drink, but respond with compassion and the attitude of mourning, because people die whether their side wins or loses. The commentaries also clarify that the “position on the right” and “rites of mourning” express a symbolic attitude and need not be taken to require mourning clothes. They further explain that the Duke of Qin’s weeping was grief after defeat, and should not be misrepresented as an ancient precedent for mourning after victory.

This passage comes from the account of the Battle of Xiao in the Zuo Tradition (the Qin–Jin war) and was included or cited in works such as the Guangshengyi on the True Classic of the Dao and De. The following explains its general meaning in plain language.

Outside the eastern gate of the capital, Jian Shu wept and said, “My child, I see the army setting out, but I do not see it returning.”

The Earl of Qin (Duke Mu of Qin) sent someone to say to him, “What do you know? If you die before reaching a ripe old age, the trees on your grave will already have grown large enough for a person to clasp around.”

Jian Shu’s son was in the army. Weeping as he saw him off, Jian Shu said, “The people of Jin will intercept the Qin army, surely at Mount Xiao, a dangerous pass. Mount Xiao has two ridges: the southern ridge is the tomb of Gao, a ruler of the Xia dynasty; the northern ridge is where King Wen of Zhou once took shelter from wind and rain. You will die in that gorge. When the time comes, I will come to gather your bones.”

The Qin army continued east. As it passed the northern gate of the Zhou capital, the attendants on the chariots on one side and the other took off their helmets and dismounted to show respect according to ritual. But three hundred chariots’ worth of soldiers leapt onto their vehicles and raced for the road, behaving with disrespectful frivolity.

Wangsun Man was still a boy. After watching, he said to King Xiang of Zhou, “The Qin army is frivolous and discourteous. It is bound to be defeated. Frivolity means little foresight; discourtesy leads to laxity. They are entering dangerous terrain while lax and unable to plan. How could they avoid defeat?”

When they reached the land of Hua, the Zheng merchant Xian Gao was on his way to trade in Zhou territory. He encountered the Qin army and first presented them with a piece of cooked cowhide and twelve oxen as provisions. He then sent someone in haste to warn Zheng.

Duke Mu of Zheng sent people to inspect the guest quarters for foreign visitors. They found that the people of Zheng had already tied up their baggage, sharpened their weapons, and fed their horses, showing that they were prepared.

Zheng sent Wuzi (Gongsun Zhi) to decline the Qin army’s visit. He said, “You have spent the winter in our small state, and the dried meat, provisions, and fodder have all run out. As you are about to depart, Zheng has the Yuanpu hunting grounds, just as Qin has the Juyu grounds. Why not hunt some deer there, while allowing our small state a little breathing room? What do you say?”

(Zheng had already seen through the Qin army’s intentions.) Qizi fled to Qi, while Fengsun and Yangsun fled to Song.

Baili Mengming said, “Zheng is prepared, so we cannot count on a surprise attack. We cannot take it by force or besiege it. We should turn back.” So, after destroying the state of Hua, the army returned home.

Yuan Zhen of Jin said, “Qin ignored Jian Shu’s advice, coveted profit, and wore out its people. Heaven has handed us this opportunity. We must not let it slip away or let the enemy go free. To let an enemy go is to invite trouble; to defy Heaven is inauspicious. We must attack the Qin army.”

Luan Zhi said, “We have not yet repaid Qin for its kindness to our state. Would attacking its army mean betraying our former ruler?”

Xian Zhen replied, “Qin did not mourn our ruler’s death, but attacked a state that shares our clan name. Qin has already acted without courtesy, so what kindness are we talking about? I have heard that letting an enemy go for even one day brings calamity for generations. How can making plans for our descendants be called betraying our former ruler?” He then gave the order and urgently called on the Jiang Rong to join the campaign. Duke Xiang of Jin wore black mourning clothes, since his father had not yet been buried. Liang Hong drove his chariot, and Lai Ju rode as the right-hand warrior. On the xinsi day of the fourth lunar month, the Jin army defeated the Qin army at Mount Xiao, captured Baili Mengmingshi, Xiqi Shu, and Baiyi Bing, and brought them back to Jin. From then on, the people of Jin wore black during mourning; this was the beginning of the custom.

Wen Ying, wife of Duke Xiang and daughter of Duke Mu of Qin, pleaded for the three Qin commanders, saying, “They were really the ones who set our two rulers against each other…”

This event took place around 627 BCE. Duke Mu of Qin ignored the senior minister Jian Shu’s warning and attempted a surprise attack on Zheng. Xian Gao, a Zheng merchant, came upon the Qin army, pretended to provision it, and sent a warning to Zheng. As the Qin army retreated in defeat, Duke Xiang of Jin ambushed it at Mount Xiao. It was a famous battle of the Spring and Autumn period. The passage’s central lesson is that ignoring good counsel, relying on force and behaving discourteously, and greedily pressing ahead in pursuit of achievement lead to defeat. It is often discussed alongside Daoist ideas such as “knowing when to stop avoids danger” and caution in warfare.

The Broad Explanation of the True Scripture of the Dao and De, Volume 26 (excerpt), modern-language interpretation

(Continuing the account of the battle)… “I gave him food and supported him without growing weary. Why must you lower yourself to issue an order sending me back to Qin to be executed? That would also fulfill my ruler’s wish. What do you think?”

Duke Wen of Jin agreed. Xian Zhen came to ask about the Qin prisoners. Duke Wen said, “My wife, Lady Wen Ying, pleaded for them, so I released them.” Xian Zhen flew into a rage. “Our soldiers captured the enemy on the battlefield by force of arms, and one woman’s word has set them free. This destroys the strength of our army and emboldens our enemy. The fall of our state cannot be far off!” He spat toward Duke Wen without turning back.

Duke Wen sent Yang Chufu to pursue them. By the time Yang reached the Yellow River, the Qin men were already aboard their boat. Yang unhitched the horse on the left side of his chariot and, claiming to act on Duke Wen’s orders, offered it to Meng Ming. Meng Ming bowed to the ground and said, “Your ruler has shown kindness: he did not kill his captive, nor send me back as though I were already dead in a coffin and hearse. He has allowed me to return to Qin and face punishment. If my ruler puts me to death according to the law, I will die with my name preserved. If, through your ruler’s kindness, I am pardoned, in three years I will surely return to repay his favor.”

The Earl of Qin, Duke Mu, went out to the suburbs in plain mourning clothes to await the army. Facing the troops, he wept and said, “I failed to heed Jian Shu’s advice, and brought humiliation upon you. That was my fault. My failure to remove Meng Ming from office was also my fault. What crime have the other officers committed?” He also said, “I will not let one small mistake obscure his great virtues.”

(Editor’s note) Jian Shu wept when he saw the army off because he foresaw its defeat. The Earl of Qin wept later because he grieved over the army’s defeat. Neither was weeping after a victory. The sage’s intent in explaining this passage so carefully is to prevent later writers from embellishing it until it strays ever further from the truth.

On Warfare and Cultivating the Self

A person who wages war and delights in killing is no gentleman. The Great Dao cherishes life, and sages and worthies take this as their standard. Victory and defeat in battle both bring harm to people; they should serve as a warning to restrain the use of force. Why wait until people have been killed before weeping?

As for cultivating the self: when the five desires—such as desires for sights, sounds, scents, tastes, and touch—invade from within, the five spirits, the mental functions associated with the five organs, grow tired and scattered. When the six emotions—joy, anger, sorrow, pleasure, love, and aversion—become excessive in the heart, the six forms of perception arising from the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind contend with one another. When Qi is depleted and Shen grows weary, death is near. One should strengthen the will, curb feelings and passions, restrain desires, and remain calm and even-tempered. This is like a ruler who governs the state without extolling the “skillful use of weapons.”