《南華真經義海纂微》Vol. 94

Wuzu asked Zhihe, “No one living in the world fails to pursue fame and seek profit. When a person becomes wealthy, others flock to him; when they flock to him, they obey him; and when they obey him, they respect him. Being obeyed and respected by everyone is a way to live long, remain secure, and be happy. Yet you have no interest in any of this. Is it because you do not understand its benefits? Or do you understand them but lack the ability to attain them? You uphold the true Way, then, yet cannot put aside your misguided thoughts.”

Zhihe said, “Some people today regard those born at the same time as themselves and living in their own hometown as vulgar. They believe they have risen above the world and are far superior to ordinary people. This is nothing but insisting that one is right, without holding to any fixed standard. They concern themselves only with the changes of past and present and the distinctions between right and wrong, adjusting themselves to follow the customs of the age. They cast aside life, their most precious possession, and their nature, the most esteemed thing they have, simply to do what they want. When they speak of the ways to live long, remain secure, and be happy, are they not far from what is truly right?

“When their bodies suffer painful illness or receive ease and pleasure, they do not examine how these sensations affect the body. When their hearts are gripped by fear and anxiety or filled with delight and joy, they do not reflect on how these emotions affect the heart. They know what they are doing, but not why they do it. So even an emperor, though lord of all under Heaven, cannot escape calamity.”

Wuzu said, “Wealth is nothing but good for people. To enjoy every pleasure and reach the summit of power is something even those who have attained the Dao can scarcely equal, and the worthy fall short of it too. By relying on others’ courage, a person establishes his authority; by relying on others’ intelligence, he appears discerning; by relying on others’ De, he appears virtuous. Such a person possesses a state and commands the dignity of a ruler and father. Besides, music and beauty, fine food and flavor, and power draw the human heart without anyone having to teach us to delight in them. The body finds comfort without needing to be shown how. What we like and dislike, what we avoid and pursue—these are things no teacher needs to instruct us in. They are part of human nature. Even if everyone under Heaven opposed me, how could I give them up?”

Zhihe said, “A wise person acts in accordance with the people’s circumstances and does not violate the natural order of things. Thus, he is content with what he has and does not contend with others. He does not deliberately pursue anything, and so he feels no lack. He does not scramble about competing for things, yet does not consider himself greedy. When he has more than enough, he yields it; even if he gives up all under Heaven, he does not consider himself morally pure. Whether someone is truly pure or greedy is not determined by outward circumstances. One must instead examine one’s own standards. If he becomes emperor, he does not use his high status to treat others arrogantly. If he possesses all under Heaven, he does not use his wealth to toy with others. He weighs the dangers involved and considers the consequences of his actions, judging that these things would harm human nature…”

Thus, declining the imperial throne and refusing to accept it was not a way to seek fame. Yao and Shun became rulers not because they were moved by compassion and wanted to govern the world. And when Shanjuan and Xu You had the chance to rule, they refused not because they were deliberately offering empty words of humility. They simply did not want the burdens of government to harm them. Since accepting the throne brought both benefit and harm, they took the benefit and avoided the harm. The people of the world therefore called them wise, but they did not act this way to win a reputation. If one thinks one must preserve a reputation for virtue, and so works oneself to exhaustion, refuses fine food, and lives frugally to sustain oneself, then one is merely enduring a long illness, suffering wretchedly, and yet not dying.

Zhihé (one who understands harmony and contentment) said: “What is moderate and ordinary is a blessing; what exceeds its measure becomes harmful. This is true of most things, and especially of wealth. The rich are surrounded by the sounds of bells, drums, and wind instruments; their mouths are filled with meat, fine wine, and sweet drinks. They use these things to gratify their desires, and in the end forget what they were meant to do. This may be called disorder. To be swept along by surging desires is like carrying a heavy load up a hill; this may be called hardship. To covet wealth in pursuit of satisfaction, and to exhaust oneself in pursuit of power—while the body sinks into ease when left in quiet solitude, then gives itself over without restraint whenever pleasure is available—this may be called illness. To pursue riches and profit, piling up possessions like a wall, yet never knowing when to stop and remaining attached to them, may be called disgrace. To accumulate possessions that serve no purpose, cling to them and refuse to let go, fill the heart with worry, and still keep seeking more—this may be called anxiety. To guard against robbers at home and fear thieves when going out; to fortify every part of one’s house and yet dare not travel alone—this may be called fear.

“These six conditions are the greatest calamities in the world. People often forget to examine them, and only when disaster is upon them do they try every means to save their lives and spend all their wealth. By then, they can no longer secure even a single day of peace and quiet. So fame pursued may never be gained, and profit pursued may never be obtained. To spend one’s thoughts and damage one’s body for these things—is that not delusion?”

Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “This chapter explains that those who know contentment are always satisfied.”

Lü Huiqing’s commentary says: “‘No contentment’ means regarding wealth as insufficient. The ‘honor’ mentioned later in the text refers to ways of settling the body and pleasing the heart. Zhihé considers wealth a good thing. But people, though born into the world alongside everyone else, still hold wealth and rank in high esteem. This shows that they have no inner guide. They follow worldly customs, abandoning what is most precious and most worthy, and instead pursue what the world pursues. To call this a way of settling the body and pleasing the heart is to have strayed far from one’s original nature. If sorrow and joy do not arise from the body’s true feelings, and alarm and delight do not arise from the heart’s true feelings, then one knows only that one is acting, without knowing why. The situation described above is like using the Marquis of Sui’s pearl to shoot at a thousand…”

Even the little sparrow meets with misfortune; how much more so those who possess great wealth! People are never satisfied, yet take their riches for granted. This is simply human nature. Who can escape this way of thinking?

Zhihe believed that those who are never satisfied will not yield, and so contend everywhere without recognizing their own greed. Those who know contentment and believe there is nothing in the world worth claiming as their own can give up the whole world without thinking themselves virtuous. The practical difference between being virtuous and being greedy is merely that each person uses a different measure for judging things. Measures are like vessels: some are large, others small. It would be wrong to say that everyone’s nature is the same.

People become absorbed in the arrogance that comes from relying on wealth and power; their bodies and minds grow haughty and complacent. They keep their bodies well nourished and rely on these advantages, yet do not understand how to preserve life. The text goes to great lengths to show the harm wealth can bring. Looking back in the end, a person may pursue fame and fail to gain it, chase profit and fail to obtain it, and be driven into anxiety and exhaustion that damage both mind and body—yet still go on contending. This is just what was said earlier: people follow their desires without knowing why they act.

Confucius could not reform Robber Zhi, and Zizhang could not bring Goude to heel. Goude, unconstrained, considered himself in the right, while Zhihe could not make him submit. This shows that goodness and evil, fame and profit are not enough to overcome another person’s arguments; only the Dao and De can prevail over such disputes.

The Commentary of Doubtful Independence says: “‘Wuzu’ refers to greedy seeking without understanding one’s proper limits.” Thus, everyone wants to make a name for themselves and gain profit. People admire wealth and therefore attach themselves to the rich. If they can become someone whom others respect, they feel their status is exalted and their intentions can be settled. Why are you entirely uninterested in these things? Is your wisdom insufficient to attain them, or your strength insufficient to accomplish them? Or have you pursued what is right and kept it in mind, and thus let go of the desire to seek them?

Zhihe replied: Those who pursue profit and seek wealth today have no inner master. They do not necessarily have to possess riches and status themselves; simply living in the same age and the same village as the wealthy makes them feel set apart from the ordinary world. They have been influenced along with everyone else by the prevailing customs, and as a result have abandoned life, the most precious thing, and the Dao, the most exalted thing. Instead, they follow what others pursue, without allowing things to unfold naturally. Is that not far from the Dao?

Human feelings change when they are stirred by external things. These responses are not inherent in the body, nor were they originally present in the mind. “Doing” means acting deliberately; “that by which things are done” means Wuwei (non-action), through which nothing is left undone. But people do not understand Wuwei, and so even when they find themselves in the utmost wealth and status, they cannot escape misfortune. Here, “Wuzu” also means being wealthy…

Surpassing other people, exhausting all the world’s beauty, and reaching the summit of worldly power are things that even sages and worthies may fail to accomplish, and that virtue may not be able to surpass. The brave use these things to augment their might; the clever use them to sharpen their discernment. One who is regarded as worthy on the strength of another’s virtue can command the awe due to a ruler or a father even without holding office. This is how the wealthy and honored conduct themselves.

As for sights and sounds, flavors, and power, these are things everyone desires. People pursue them without having to learn how; they are expressions of human nature emerging through desire. Who among the people of the world can refuse such desires?

Zhihe also said: The wise act in such a way that the people do not violate the laws. The laws are the principles the heart follows. When one knows contentment, one does not contend with others; when one practices Wuwei (non-action), one makes no excessive demands. Those who feel they have too little now search in every direction, competing and struggling to acquire wealth, yet do not consider themselves greedy. Those who feel they have more than enough can yield even the whole world, yet do not consider themselves pure. The reputations for greed or purity may appear outwardly, but the truth of the matter arises from within. Simply look back into your own heart, and you will understand.

Only by not relying on one’s high rank to treat others arrogantly can one retain that rank for long; only by not using wealth to toy with others can one remain wealthy. Those who discern the signs of events and plan for, and worry about, calamities do so because they fear damage to their nature. They yield and refuse what is offered for this reason, not to win a reputation. Yet the people of the world naturally bestow a reputation on them. When Yao and Shun yielded the throne, and Xu You and Shanjuan refused to accept it, they chose what was beneficial and rejected what brought harm; they did not deliberately seek a reputation, yet one arose from their actions.

This cannot be counted among the ideals Zhihe upheld. Clinging to a reputation, exhausting oneself and going without food—how is that different from being worn down by chronic illness, unable to find a way to live?

Zhihe said: For all things in the world, balance brings good fortune, while excess brings harm. This is especially true of wealth. The rich today are bewitched by external things and lost in pleasure. They forget their proper work, and their minds are blocked by unrighteous influences; they labor as if carrying a heavy load up a mountain. They crave wealth and power to soothe their hearts, exhausting themselves in the process. Even in quiet solitude, they remain immersed in desire. When their bodies are comfortable, they rely on wealth and power and throw their weight around; when they try to accomplish something and cannot get what they want, worry arises.

Their possessions pile up like a wall, yet they still refuse to give anything up; disgrace is approaching. The ancients stored money and grain to meet the needs of their villages in times of famine, illness, and the like, using them to help everyone and cultivate virtue. The rich today often accumulate wealth without putting it to use, seeking ever more and never knowing when to stop. Worry builds up in their hearts; they consider everything and prepare for every external threat. Wealth is one of the world’s great harms, yet people indulge their desires and fail to see it. When the danger of thieves finally arrives, trying to hold on to all their possessions puts their lives at risk…

Desire exhausts the wealth one has accumulated, yet one single-mindedly wishes to return to a life of former poverty and low status. Neither is possible. So one turns things over again and again, even pushing body and mind to extremes in an effort to ward off calamity. Is this not foolish?

Bixu, a Daoist commentator, says: This chapter further explains the preceding two. People in the world seek fame because they want high status, and pursue profit because they want wealth. Who would not long for these two kinds of comfortable life? Some have little understanding and do not grasp the principles involved; others understand them but are too lazy to put them into practice. If one can investigate what is right without forgetting one’s roots, and accept what fate brings without forcing things, what is there about wealth and status to cling to?

When ordinary people share the same time and hometown as the wealthy and powerful, they feel they too have some advantage. But those who have an inner sense of direction are not led by external things, and those who understand past and present are not disturbed by worldly affairs. Nothing matters more than the body, yet life is more precious than the body. Today people follow custom, abandoning the important and precious life to pursue what the world pursues. How, then, can they speak of settling body and mind and bringing joy to the heart? In poverty and low status, they worry and feel insecure; in wealth and high status, they rejoice and feel satisfied. They do not understand what is fundamental and value only what is superficial. People busy themselves with pursuing fame and profit, unaware that wealth and status come and go of their own accord. Abandoning one’s natural place and single-mindedly seeking wealth and status will inevitably lead to hardship.

Small ants gather only where there is a rank, foul stench; hermits who veil their faces consider it shameful to accept alms offered with contempt. Fish in rivers and lakes forget one another; people, too, can forget one another amid humanity and the arts of the Dao. Why, then, depend on external things or rely on anything to sustain oneself?

The unrestrained delight in sensual pleasures, while the extravagant feel secure amid power and influence. These are ordinary human feelings—who would not want such things? But one’s actions must accord with proper standards. A ruler who campaigns in all directions with the aim of bringing peace to the people, rather than coveting treasure, is not greedy. And when his achievements are complete and his reputation renowned, even if he abdicates the throne in favor of a person of the Dao, he need not regard himself as pure and selfless. Prince Sou fled into the Cinnabar Cave, and Yan He would rather tend cattle than accept a summons. Was this to win fame? Shun yielded the realm to Shanjuan, but Shanjuan kept farming and paid no heed. Was this, too, a way to make his name known?

The greedy regard calm, quietude, and simplicity as hardship and loneliness, unaware that peace and plainness are blessings. Excessive wealth can bring calamity, and the harms caused by possessions arrive more swiftly and prove more severe than those caused by anything else, yet people in the world fail to see this. In the eyes of those who prize calm and quietude, bells, drums, and music, along with fine wine and rich dishes, make people lose their true nature and neglect their cultivation. Seeing abundant food and a house full of possessions…

Single-mindedly pursuing power and profit often brings many hardships and troubles. Those who think only of using their influence to secure comfort end up sunk in it, until it becomes a source of calamity for them. People who covet wealth care nothing even if they face death or humiliation; no matter how much wealth they amass, they are never satisfied. They never let go of worry and fear. Only when calamity strikes and their fortunes collapse do they think of giving their savings away before it is too late.

By then, their true nature has already been depleted, and little of their wealth remains. Is there still time to release falcons and hounds for the hunt, or to hear cranes calling in Cai and crying in Huatingsi? These were the cranes’ calls—what time could there possibly be for that?

Yanzhai says: The “person” mentioned here means someone who is wealthy and powerful. There is nothing especially profound or difficult in how such people act. They simply lack conviction, have lost their nature, and been assimilated into worldly ways. They study the gains and losses of past and present only to seek their own advantage. They cast aside the highest and most honored principle of Heaven, caring only to pursue what they call wealth and status. Can this really be the right way to bring peace and joy to body and mind?

What people do arises from human action, but their ability to act rests on the principle of Heaven. If they cast aside that principle and refuse to act in accordance with it, even an emperor cannot escape calamity—how much less can those of lower rank?

The wealthy and powerful enjoy every comfort and make full use of their influence. In some respects, even perfected people and worthy sages cannot match them. People therefore suppose that their power is enough to command all things. The saying “Wealth can reach the gods” expresses just this idea. Even if everyone under Heaven thinks I am in the wrong, how could I refuse or escape? These are words put into the mouth of someone consumed by greed.

The wise take as their standard the principle of Heaven that all people receive in common, and dare not violate its laws. When one’s own cultivation of De is complete, there is nothing to contend over. One neither demands anything from others nor dispenses things in every direction. The key to judging greed and integrity lies not in chasing external things, but in following the principle of Heaven and its laws, and in reflecting carefully on oneself. One does not let a good reputation harm oneself: even with all under Heaven in one’s possession, one does not claim it as one’s own. Even when the reputation of worthiness belongs to oneself, one remains at ease and without shame. This is not done to seek fame.

Here, too, the stories of Yao, Shun, and Xu You are made to sound admirable. If one insists on pursuing fame instead of wealth, one merely makes oneself suffer for nothing: the body may still be alive, but it is like being ill and trapped, as though one wanted to die but could not.

The text says, “Peace is blessing; wealth brings calamity.” This means that peace is a blessing, while money and property may invite trouble. The next few phrases are especially subtle: “xian” means to have the mouth stuffed full; “gai” means to be obstructed and unable to move freely; “feng” means anger knotted within, with the breath unable to flow freely; “wei” means satisfaction, or enough to bring comfort; and “jie” means carrying something through to the end, exhausting it.

Even in quiet surroundings, one may sink into indulgence in one’s desires. The body grows plump and lustrous, while pride and complacency arise within. Wealth piles up like a wall, yet one clings to it and cannot let go, until sorrow and anxiety fill the heart.

When goods are stored inside the house, one worries that someone will come to seize them; when wealth is kept outside, one fears encountering robbers. The rich, then, live with both anxiety and fear. When disaster strikes, even if they wish to save their lives and abandon their possessions, they may not be able to do so. Their wish is as hard to fulfill as a poor person’s hope for one peaceful, trouble-free day.

“Preserving one’s life” means keeping oneself alive; “giving up all one’s wealth” means abandoning every possession. “Alone” means by oneself. “Thoughts entangled and the body constrained” describes deep anxiety that binds both mind and body.

Wuzu, a person’s name, was absorbed in profit, so the text illustrates his outlook through the life of a rich man who uses wealth to settle himself and satisfy his desires. If a person has money to deal with worldly affairs and care for the body, it may seem that nothing can go wrong. Zhihe, also a person’s name, was absorbed in reputation. He acted within the rules and, once content, sought nothing more. He understood that profit could not be relied upon and that greed for gain brought worry and hastened disaster. He therefore gave up his possessions, not to win praise; praise came to him of its own accord.

Wuzu then mocked Zhihe: exhausting mind and body to protect one’s reputation was no different from enduring hardship and barely staying alive. Zhihe replied that peace and contentment are blessings, while excessive wealth brings harm. This is a penetrating account of the principles governing the world, and even Wuzu was convinced by it. From here to the end of the passage, the text describes in detail how rich people conduct themselves. Their schemes cannot escape the insight of those who understand the world, yet in the end they do themselves no good. They merely accumulate and protect wealth on behalf of the “great robber.” By the time disaster strikes and they realize this, it is already too late. As Shi Chong was led to his execution at the eastern marketplace, he sighed, “Those slaves are after my property.” So it is. The Perfected One of Nanhua, Zhuangzi, recorded this event; readers may take it as a warning.

Note: Gai, pronounced “gāi,” means strange or unusual. Feng, pronounced “píng,” here means pent-up resentment and frustration, unable to find a way through. Jiao is another form of the character meaning “scorch.” “Openwork windows” refers to lattice windows. “Thoughts entangled” means thoughts ceaselessly knotted around one another; “the body forgotten” means forgetting one’s own life and death.

Liu Gai said: There is no fixed right and wrong in the world; right and wrong arise from people’s feelings. Yet there is also a right and wrong that goes beyond personal feelings: it is right and wrong dissolved into human nature. A nature aligned with what is “right” brings good fortune; one aligned with what is “wrong” brings disaster. The Book of Changes says, “Good and ill fortune are the result of the true Way and the deviant way contending, with the true Way prevailing.” If people cannot grasp the true Way and do not regard all things as equal, but instead struggle endlessly in the world of “being,” each thing exalting itself and belittling others, who can decide what is right and what is wrong? Thus, even though Confucius and the robber Zhi took opposite positions, each called the other a robber. Zhuangzi did not fail to respect Confucius or to condemn the robber Zhi. Rather, he used them to show that when people do not understand the principle of regarding things as equal and forgetting distinctions, they compete through cunning and boast of their abilities. If they then follow ordinary feelings and praise or condemn without restraint, right and wrong only become more sharply divided, while the natural truth of human nature and life grows ever more scattered.

Once someone declares their own views absolutely correct, not even a sage may be able to defeat them in debate. For this reason, the closing passage judges Zizhang’s words to be misguided and ends with Zhihé’s discussion.

Master Chu offers this assessment: In the “Robber Zhi” chapter, Robber Zhi twists arguments to suit himself, disguises his faults, belittles others, and exalts himself to an extreme degree. He even makes the general teachings of the sages seem impossible to defend against. He is a striking example of the violent and wicked people in the world. Some have argued that the chapter’s attacks on Confucius do not accord with the classics and were added by later hands. This is not so. The contrast between Confucius’s benevolence and virtue and Robber Zhi’s brutality is clear without argument. The chapter speaks as it does deliberately, to reveal the depth of Confucius’s sage way and the breadth of his virtue.

How could Robber Zhi understand what made Confucius a sage? He judged Confucius’s actions by his own, and guessed at Confucius’s heart by imagining his own. Naturally, his argument took this form. This is merely Confucius as Robber Zhi saw him. If Robber Zhi could truly understand Confucius’s sage virtue in full, he would no longer be Robber Zhi. Thus, though Confucius is disparaged, his reputation becomes all the more revered; though Robber Zhi praises himself, his infamy becomes all the more evident. The world’s shared judgment of right and wrong has not disappeared as a result.

Commentaries by various scholars draw out the principles from the chapter’s wording, and differ little from one another. As I reflected carefully on its unstated meaning, however, I felt it pointed to something else. Readers have not investigated this, and often regard the text only as an offense against a sage. As a result, even after a thousand years, its meaning has yet to be made clear. I therefore offer this clarification.

The chapter originally uses Robber Zhi to satirize the rulers and high ministers of its time. They relied on their wealth and status, took the power of life and death into their own hands, yet could not transform people through reason. Even if Confucius had lived again, he could hardly have escaped their insults. The chapter therefore uses Robber Zhi as a comparison and presents Confucius as a stand-in for the author himself. Next, Zizhang questions Mǎn Gǒudé. The name “Mǎn Gǒudé” means seeking only to satisfy one’s private desires and pursuing gain by any expedient means. His words are no different from Robber Zhi’s. Such people use argument to overpower others, yet fail to see that they have lost their true nature, turned away from what is right, and drifted ever farther from the Dao.

Then Wúzú questions Zhihé. Zhihé’s aims are to win fame and seek profit, while putting bodily preservation and the satisfaction of his desires first. He, too, pursues gain by expedient means. Zhihé tells him that the wealthy should value building up their fortunes, but should also be able to give their wealth away to help the people and provide for others. Those in poverty can rely on them to make a living, and so avoid being driven from place to place or even starving to death in the ditches.

In the past, Tao Zhu Gong (Fan Li) was skilled at managing his estate. After accumulating wealth, he gave it to his neighbors. He gave away his fortune three times and moved three times, while also avoiding the fame that came from doing good. The wealthy today, however, are absorbed in sensual pleasures and every kind of indulgence. They think only of endlessly increasing their wealth, and do not…

The more wealth one accumulates, the more it becomes an obstacle hemming one in, filling the heart with worry and fear. The greater the profit, the deeper the harm it brings. The downfall of Meiwu, the fortified compound built by Dong Zhuo, and Jingu, Shi Chong’s Garden of the Golden Valley, offers lessons worth taking to heart. Better, instead, to till the fields and dig wells, providing for oneself through one’s own labor. In this way, one can preserve life and enjoy one’s full years, free from the burdens of external things.

These words are meant to expose and correct the deep-rooted ills of worldly habits, and to make the teachings of the sages clear and earnest. I hope that those who study them will not cling to the surface of the words, but will seek out the principles within: dissolve the selfish desire to chase fame and profit, and return to De (Virtue) as the root. The teaching of Wuwei (non-action) and stillness is enough to make people throughout the world benevolent and long-lived. How could its effects be limited to keeping one person healthy and fortunate? From this, we can see that the intentions of the Perfected One of Nanhua, Zhuangzi—to uphold the Dao, spread its teachings, rescue the age, and show compassion for the world—were no different in purpose from those of Confucius and Mencius.

Collected Subtle Interpretations of the Meaning of the True Scripture of Nanhua, juan 96