《南華真經註疏》Vol. 12

Commentary on the Perfect Scripture of Nanhua, Volume Twelve (Book Six)

Commentary by Guo Xiang of Henan

Subcommentary by Master Cheng Xuanying of Xihua in the Tang dynasty

Outer Chapter: “Rifling Through Chests,” Chapter Ten

To guard against thieves who open chests, reach into bags, and pry open cabinets, you must put your belongings away, tie them securely with rope, and fasten the door bolts and locks. This is what the world calls cleverness.

Subcommentary: “Open” means to open a chest; a qie is a chest; a nang is a bag; “gather” means to put things away; “seal” means to close the opening; a teng is a cord for tying things up; a jiong is a door bolt; and a jue is a lock and key. What should you do to guard against petty thieves who open chests, reach into bags, and pry open cabinets to steal valuables? Put the chests and bags away, seal them and tie them securely, then fasten the door bolts and locks. Do not leave things lying about. This is the world’s plain and simple cleverness.

But when a great thief comes, he will carry off the cabinet on his back, haul away the chest, and make off with the bag slung over his shoulder. He only worries that the ropes, bolts, and locks might not be secure enough. Looking at it this way, don’t the clever precautions just described end up gathering wealth for the great thief?

Commentary: This shows that the world’s cleverness is not something to rely on.

Subcommentary: Putting things away, sealing and tying them tightly, and fastening the bolts and locks are ways to guard against petty thieves. But when a great thief arrives, he simply carries off the goods, and instead worries that the ropes, bolts, and locks are not strong enough. The precautions taken earlier end up aiding the thieves. Thus the world’s cleverness cannot be relied upon.

So let us try to consider this: Is there any kind of cleverness the world calls cleverness that does not gather wealth for great thieves? Is there any kind of sage the world calls a sage who does not guard wealth for great thieves?

Subcommentary: For the worthy person who has realized the Great Dao, words cannot express things precisely. He wishes to make clear the principle of forgetting words, so he says, “Let us try to consider this.” Ordinary people make shallow plans and see only the surface. Those who are acclaimed as sages in the world may not understand the principles deeply either. They devise precautions, but in doing so gather wealth for thieves. Even institutions and measures originally intended to protect wealth can become safeguards for thieves. How, then, could there be anything that does not gather or guard wealth for great thieves? The point is that these practices are bound to gather wealth for them.

How do we know this is so?

Subcommentary: The text first raises a question to introduce and explain its main point.

In ancient times, the villages and settlements throughout the state of Qi lay within sight of one another, and the sounds of roosters crowing and dogs barking could be heard from one to the next. The places where people cast nets to catch fish, plowed fields, and hoed the earth stretched for more than two thousand li in every direction.

Subcommentary: Qi was the fief granted to the descendants of Jiang Taigong, and its territory was centered at Yingqiu. By the time of Duke Huan of Qi, he had repeatedly convened the feudal lords and restored order to the realm. The people lived in abundance, and there was no place in Qi that did not…

Thus, the crowing of roosters and barking of dogs could be heard from one place to another, and houses in neighboring towns could be seen across the way. People cast nets to catch fish and went hunting. They worked the fields with the lei, an ancient tool for turning the soil, and the nou, an ancient tool for weeding, and developed agriculture. Qi’s territory stretched more than two thousand li in every direction. In strength and prosperity, it truly stood first among the feudal states.

Throughout Qi’s borders, ancestral temples and altars to the soil and grain deities were established, and towns, villages, and local districts such as zhou, lü, xiang, and qu were governed. Which of these practices did not imitate the methods of the sages? The altar to She was associated with the soil, while Ji was the foremost of the five grains. Under the ancient system, land was measured in corresponding units, and residents were organized by household into groups called bi, lü, zu, dang, zhou, and xiang. “Within the four borders” means throughout the whole of Qi. These institutions all imitated those of Yao and Shun, showing the principles by which sages established states.

Yet one day Tian Chengzi—that is, Chen Heng, a high official of Qi—killed Duke Jian of Qi and seized the state.

Note: To imitate the sages is only to copy the forms they left behind. Those forms belong to the past and cannot respond to circumstances that keep changing. Why should they be revered and upheld without question? When fixed old laws are used to deal with endless change, the arrival of change will obstruct those laws. So governing a state by clinging to old laws will ultimately amount to guarding the state for someone else.

Tian Chengzi was Chen Heng’s title. After Chen Jingzhong, an ancestor of the Chen family, came to Qi and received land as a fief, the family adopted the name Tian. Over time, the Tian family gradually took control of Qi’s government, and Chen Heng eventually assassinated Duke Jian. Later, his great-grandson Tian He moved Duke Kang of Qi to the coast and proclaimed himself ruler of Qi. Zhuangzi lived during the reign of King Xuan of Qi.

Was Qi the only thing Tian Chengzi stole? He stole the sages’ principles for governing a state along with it.

Note: If he had not appropriated the sages’ methods, he would have had no way to seize the state of Qi.

Commentary: What did Tian Heng appropriate? It was not just the state of Qi. First he appropriated the sages’ wisdom and methods, and only then was he able to control the feudal lords. This shows that the established labels of benevolence and righteousness became the very means by which thieves sought power.

Although Tian Chengzi bore the disgraceful name of a thief, he himself enjoyed a life of ease like that of Yao and Shun.

Commentary: Tian Heng usurped the state of Qi and so acquired the infamous name of a great thief. Yet, after occupying the position of a feudal lord, he enjoyed a life of comfort like that of Tang Yao and Yu Shun.

The smaller states did not dare criticize him, and the larger states did not dare attack him. In this way, the government of Qi passed down through twelve generations.

Commentary: States ruled by viscounts or barons did not dare criticize the great states ruled by earls or marquises; how could they possibly send troops to attack them? Thus Tian’s descendants succeeded one another, their ancestral temple enduring through twelve generations, just as described above.

Does this not mean that Tian Heng stole the state of Qi and, along with it, the sages’ wisdom and methods, using them to preserve his position as a thief?

Note: The sages’ methods are merely tools for people to use; they are not enough to ensure that anyone truly becomes a sage.

Commentary: He stole a state in the name of benevolence and righteousness, and preserved himself through the arts of sage-like wisdom. This restates the earlier point and sums up its meaning.

Let us consider this: Has the highest wisdom praised by the world ever failed to be used by great thieves to amass wealth? Has the highest sage-like virtue ever failed to be used by great thieves to guard their wealth?

Commentary: This again sums up the earlier point and leads into what follows.

How do we know this is so?

Commentary: A question is posed here to clarify the main point.

In the past, Guan Longfeng, the worthy minister of Xia Jie, was killed; Bi Gan, a kinsman and minister of Shang Zhou, had his chest split open; Chang Hong, a worthy minister of King Ling of Zhou, was dismembered; and Zixu, or Wu Zixu, was killed. Thus, although these four men were worthy and wise, they ultimately could not escape being put to death.

Note: Even cruel and benighted rulers could use the power of reigning over all under Heaven to kill the worthy, with no one daring to resist. This was all brought about by the sages’ methods. Without them, how could Jie and Zhou have held on to their positions as rulers and committed acts of violence at will, making everyone under Heaven look on in fear?

Commentary: Longfeng, surnamed Guan, was a worthy minister of Xia Jie and was killed by Jie. Bi Gan was a prince who remonstrated with King Zhou; Zhou split open his chest to inspect his heart. Chang Hong was a worthy minister of King Ling of Zhou. The Garden of Persuasions records that Shu Xiang of Jin killed Chang Hong. Chang Hong had often gone to the Zhou court, and someone sent him a letter. Shu Xiang said to Chang Hong, “You raised Jin’s troops to attack Zhou, deposed the Liu clan, and installed the Shan clan.” The Liu clan then said to the ruler of Zhou, “This was Chang Hong’s idea.” So they killed him. The character 肔 means to tear apart; here, too, it refers to dismemberment.

The belly was cut open, and the corpse rotted and fell apart. This refers to Wu Zixu, a minister of the state of Wu during the Spring and Autumn period. After he was killed, his body was thrown into the river and left to decay. All four men mentioned above were loyal and wise, yet they were still put to death. This was because men who lacked the Dao used the ruler’s power and authority to attack the loyal and virtuous and harm them at will.

One of Robber Zhi’s followers posed this question:

“Is there a Dao even in being a robber?”

The question is put in the mouth of one of Robber Zhi’s followers to introduce the discussion that follows.

Robber Zhi replied, “Where is there no Dao?”

This answers the question just asked: the Dao is everywhere—where could it be absent? The specific ways the Dao finds expression are listed below.

“Guessing in advance what valuables are hidden inside a house is sagacity. Being the first to enter is courage. Being the last to withdraw is loyalty. Judging whether an undertaking is feasible is wisdom. Sharing the loot evenly is benevolence. If someone lacked these five qualities yet managed to become a great robber, no such person has ever existed in the world.”

Note: These five qualities were originally meant to prevent theft, but instead they became the means by which robbers carried it out.

Commentary: Valuables are hidden in the house. Driven by greed, robbers first estimate how much the house contains, and often guess correctly, as though they had divine insight; this is why it is called “sagacity.” They work together, fear no one who might stop them, and race to enter first. Could this not be called courage? When blades and arrows clash, they risk their lives and vie to be the last to withdraw. Could this not be called loyalty? They act when they know an undertaking is feasible and stop when it is not. Able to distinguish safety from danger and judge good and ill fortune, they often succeed in what they set out to do. This is wisdom. They value loyalty over money, take less for themselves and give more to others, and share the loot fairly. This is benevolence. The sagacity, courage, loyalty, wisdom, and benevolence mentioned above are these five qualities. Even a robber must rely on these five virtues; without them, theft cannot succeed. This shows that no one in the world has ever become a great robber without sagacity and wisdom.

It follows that people who do good cannot establish themselves and follow the Way without the Dao of the sages; people like Robber Zhi cannot succeed in theft without relying on sagacity and wisdom.

Good people are few in the world, while bad people are many. Thus, the sages bring little benefit to the world and cause much more harm.

Note: There is truth in this statement. However, even if it is credible, the sages still cannot…

The wisdom and cunning of people under Heaven have not yet disappeared completely, so the Way of the sage is needed to bring them to order. But if people still retain their cleverness while only the sage’s wisdom disappears, the harm caused under Heaven will be greater than when a sage is present. It seems, then, that although the harm brought by having a sage is considerable, it is still better than having no sage and leaving the world ungoverned. Even so, it would be better to let every kind of cleverness disappear, so that the world is no longer harmed. Everyone under Heaven pursues gain, yet no one is willing to set aside their own cleverness. How confused, and how far from the right way, they are!

Commentary: The paths of good and evil are both connected with the sage’s wisdom. Boyi held fast to integrity and left behind an honorable name; Robber Zhi indulged his greed and brutality, taking plunder for profit. Yet people like Robber Zhi are numerous, while people like Boyi are few. This shows that the sage’s example brings little benefit to the world and causes much harm.

That is why it is said, “When the lips are gone, the teeth grow cold.” The wine of Lu was too weak, and Handan was besieged as a result. When sages appear, great robbers rise up alongside them.

Note: The loss of the lips was not meant to make the teeth grow cold, yet the teeth still grew cold. The wine of Lu was not made weak in order to bring about the siege of Handan, yet Handan was still besieged. The sage did not appear in order to provoke great robbers, yet great robbers still arose. This is how things naturally become entangled with one another, until circumstances inevitably take shape. Although the sage does not deliberately set up a standard for all things to revere, he cannot prevent people from revering him. Then, whether people are high or low in status, and whether their actions are true or false, as long as they imitate the sage’s principles, people under Heaven will dare not speak out and will submit in secret. This is precisely what allows people like Jie and Robber Zhi to gain power and carry out their great robberies.

Commentary: The Spring and Autumn Annals, Zuo Commentary says, “When the lips are gone, the teeth grow cold.” It refers to the states of Yu and Guo. Handan was a city of Zhao. According to tradition, when King Xuan of Chu summoned the feudal lords to an assembly, Duke Gong of Lu arrived late and brought weak wine. The king grew angry and wanted to humiliate him. Duke Gong of Lu said, “I am descended from the Duke of Zhou and observe the rites and music of the Son of Heaven; my merits are recorded in the royal archives of Zhou. To blame me for weak wine simply because I failed in the proper courtesy of presenting it is surely excessive.” He then returned home without taking leave. King Xuan was furious and sent troops to attack Lu. King Hui of Liang had long wanted to attack Zhao, but feared that Lu would send troops to its aid. Now that Chu and Lu were at war, Liang took the opportunity to besiege Handan. The siege of Handan, like the rise of great robbers when sages appear, was not deliberately caused; it followed from the circumstances.

Overthrow the sages and let the robbers run free: only then does the world begin to be governed.

Note: The sage is someone whom people under Heaven revere. If …

Treasure and preserve one’s unadorned nature, abolish the many prohibitions, and govern instead by reducing desires. This is what is meant by attacking the sages—that is, criticizing the teachings and institutions they left behind. If I preserve what is unadorned, I can keep myself whole. If restraints on thieves are relaxed, their wicked conduct will subside of its own accord. As the ancients said: “To prevent evil and preserve sincerity does not depend on close scrutiny; to curb excess and eliminate ostentation does not depend on harsh punishments and severe laws.” This is the principle at work.

The commentary explains: “Pound down” means to strike at or attack. Here, “the sages” also refers to the deeds and teachings they left behind. The sages’ wisdom extended throughout the world, and they used the Dao to aid society. To “attack the sages” here also means to disparage benevolence and righteousness and reject sagely wisdom. When people no longer prize rare goods, restraints on thieves can be relaxed; the world can be at peace without relying on harsh punishments and severe laws.

When rivers run dry, the valleys grow empty; when hills are leveled, the deep ravines are filled. When the sages die, great robbers no longer rise up.

The commentary says that rivers do not run dry in order to empty the valleys, yet the valleys do indeed grow empty as a result. Hills are not leveled in order to fill the deep ravines, yet the ravines do indeed fill as a result. In the same way, cutting off the Way of the sages is not done in order to stop thieves, yet thieves do indeed cease as a result. The key to stopping theft, then, lies in eliminating desire, not in displaying the wisdom of the sages.

The subcommentary explains that once wisdom is put on display, deceit and hypocrisy arise. When the various teachings left by the sages disappear, great robbers cease to rise up. This is like rivers running dry and valleys growing empty, or hills being leveled and deep ravines being filled: each is a natural consequence.

When the world is at peace, there are no troubling affairs.

The commentary says that not only do thieves and strife cease, but the custom of venerating the deeds of the sages disappears as well.

The subcommentary explains that “affairs” means things to be done. Once sagely wisdom is rejected, the world is at peace and the people can live contentedly, like the legendary villagers who sang as they tamped the earth. There is then no need to undertake anything deliberately.

If the sages do not die, great robbers will not cease to rise up. Even honoring the sages and governing the world through their teachings amounts to increasing the benefits gained by Robber Zhi, the legendary great thief.

The commentary says that if the sages are honored and the world is governed by their principles, people like Jie and Zhi will also take advantage of those principles. Since what they rely on is held in high regard, the gains they make from it will not be small.

The subcommentary explains that in an age of simplicity, people were quiet and desireless, followed their natural course, and let all things return to their roots. People, too, returned to their own nature. Why would they need to wait for teachings and laws to bring them peace? Once the fashion for sagely wisdom prevailed and people could not forget these teachings, great robbers arose in its wake. Even honoring the sages and governing the world by laws is no different from increasing the benefits gained by Robber Zhi. Jie of the Xia dynasty wantonly harmed the people, while Robber Zhi was greedy and violent; both were able to do so by relying on the institutions and teachings left by the sages. Without these institutions, how could Jie have occupied the throne and harmed the people? How could Robber Zhi have gathered thousands of followers and rampaged across the world? Since what they relied on was held in high regard, the benefits they gained from it were naturally substantial. From this, one may infer that the root of calamity lies in the Way of sagely wisdom.

If measures such as the dou and hu are made to quantify goods, great thieves will steal the measures along with the goods. If scales are made to weigh goods, great thieves will steal the scales as well. If tallies and seals are made to establish trust, great thieves will steal the tallies and seals too. If benevolence and righteousness are used to reform people’s hearts, great thieves will steal benevolence and righteousness as well.

Note: What troubles petty thieves is precisely what great thieves use to profit.

Commentary: A hu is a vessel now used to measure the quantity of goods. The quan is the scale’s weight; the heng is its beam. Together, they are used to determine how heavy something is. A tally is a token split into two pieces that fit together to form a proof of identity, like the bronze fish or wooden tally used today. A seal is a jade stamp used by rulers; whoever holds it can summon people throughout the realm. Benevolence means kindness; righteousness means what is fitting. Rulers show kindness to the people and act according to what is fitting in order to care for them. These eight things are useful instruments for all under Heaven, and none can be dispensed with. The sages established teachings to set the state in order; Tian Chengzi used these things to seize the state of Qi. Does this not show that they harm petty thieves while helping great thieves?

How do we know this is so? A person who steals a belt hook is put to death, while one who seizes a state becomes a feudal lord. The courts of feudal lords uphold benevolence and righteousness. Does this not mean that they have stolen benevolence, righteousness, and even sage wisdom along with the state?

Commentary: A hook is the clasp on a belt. The sages’ teachings were originally meant to punish evil and encourage goodness. Anyone who secretly steals a belt hook is sure to be punished; yet someone who openly seizes the state of Qi becomes a feudal lord. Without benevolence and righteousness, one could not lead the people. Seen in this light, is this not a matter of stealing the sages’ name and thereby taking the state? “How do we know this is so?” poses a hypothetical question; the passage beginning “A person who steals a belt hook” gives a hypothetical answer.

Thus, those who follow great thieves, install them as feudal lords, and steal benevolence and righteousness, along with useful instruments such as measures, scales, tallies, and seals, cannot be deterred even by rewards of carriages and robes of office. Nor can they be restrained by the threat of executioners’ axes and hatchets, symbols of punishment.

Note: Carriages and robes of office, and executioners’ axes and hatchets, represent the most weighty rewards and punishments. Originally, great rewards and severe punishments were used to prevent theft. But great thieves seize these things and put them to use, turning rewards and punishments into tools for thieves. The more forceful the means employed, the more they enable great thieves to succeed. Great thieves must govern through benevolence and righteousness, settle affairs with scales, win trust through tallies and seals, reward with carriages and robes of office, and intimidate with executioners’ axes and hatchets. Only by stealing these public instruments can they attain the position of feudal lord.

Therefore, methods such as benevolence and righteousness, rewards and punishments, can in the end be used only to punish petty thieves who steal chickens and dogs.

The commentary explains: “Pursue” means to follow; “encourage” means to urge; “prohibit” means to forbid; “carriage” means a chariot; and “crown” means a formal cap.

The sage established laws and standards originally to put a stop to wrongdoing. Yet Tian Heng, a high official of the state of Qi during the Spring and Autumn period, used these very means to seize Qi’s power, its weights and measures, and its seals. He then flaunted his position before the feudal lords and calmly proclaimed himself king. How could someone like him be persuaded by bestowing on him a grand carriage and ceremonial crown? And how could he be cowed by an axe and battle-axe? A small axe is called a “fu,” and a large one a “yue”; some were also decorated with gold. By placing such value on ranks and instruments of punishment, the sages made them a source of gain for the great bandit Zhi, the legendary outlaw, and made thieves harder to suppress. This was the sages’ fault.

The note explains: Bandit Zhi could not be stopped because the spoils he took were so great; those spoils were so great because the sages placed such high value on these things. The fundamental remedy, then, is to care less for material wealth, not to exalt the sages.

The commentary explains: Bandit Zhi was able to gather nine thousand followers and rampage across the land, and he too relied on the Five Virtues—the Confucian virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness. Without the sages’ wisdom and laws, how could he have managed it? This shows that the root cause of people driving off horses and plundering others without being stopped lies in flaws in the laws established by the sages.

Thus it is said: “Fish cannot leave the deep pool; the sharp instruments of the state must not be shown to others.”

The note explains: If fish leave the deep pool, they will be caught. If the state’s sharp instruments are put to use by others, they can become tools for thieves, so they should not be displayed openly.

The commentary explains: “Leave” means to depart from or lose; “sharp instruments” refers to the sages’ laws and methods of governing; “show” means to reveal. Fish are harmed when they leave the water. When the sharp instruments are revealed to others, they may be taken up and used, so they must not be displayed casually.

The sage is the sharp instrument of the world.

The note explains: If the sage can stop displaying sagehood and abandon clever schemes, returning to a state of undivided unity with all things and allowing each thing to follow its own nature, then the traces the sage leaves in governing will benefit all things. “Instrument” can also be understood as a trace of action; whatever others can grasp and use is called an “instrument.”

The commentary explains: The sages meant here are figures such as Yao, Shun, King Wen, and King Wu.

The sage should not display these things to the people of the world.

The note explains: Showing the sharp instruments to the people of the world only gives thieves something to use.

The commentary explains: When governing the world and responding to the myriad things, the sage adapts to the times: sometimes yielding the throne, sometimes waging war, sometimes serving in office, sometimes withdrawing. The sage must not cling to a single way or present it to the people as a fixed model. If people copy one method rigidly, harm will inevitably follow. The King of Yan’s abdication of the throne to Zi Zhi and the rebellion of Bai Gong Sheng are examples.

Therefore, once the display of sagehood is ended and clever schemes are abandoned, great banditry will cease.

The note explains: Remove the means on which thieves rely to steal, and thievery will naturally cease without the need to impose prohibitions.

The commentary explains: When the many actions devised by the sages are cast aside and all things in the world are allowed to keep to their proper place, the practice of theft will die out of its own accord.

Cast away jade and destroy pearls, and thieves will no longer arise.

Note: When these things are no longer treated as treasures, theft will naturally cease without anyone needing to impose punishment.

Commentary: Hide jade in the mountains and pearls in the waters. If people do not prize treasures, where would thieves come from?

Burn the tallies and seals, and the people will return to simplicity.

Note: Remove the tokens that the crafty use to deceive others, and they will have no means to carry out their fraud.

Commentary: Tallies and seals were originally meant to signify trust, but the deceitful have used them to cheat others. Burn them, then, and people can return to their original nature and a state of natural simplicity.

Destroy the measuring vessels and scales, and the people will no longer contend.

Note: Small instruments of fairness may, in fact, become tools of greater injustice.

Commentary: Measuring vessels and scales are used to calculate quantities and weigh things, but people can secretly tamper with them and use them to steal. Breaking them accords with the wisdom of the ancients, who upheld simplicity; then people will no longer quarrel over calculations.

Thoroughly abolish the rules laid down by the sages for the world, and only then will the people be able to speak of principle.

Note: When there is nothing external with which to embellish oneself, the heart can preserve its simplicity and will not utter words that go against its nature.

Commentary: “Exhaust” means to bring to an end; “destroy” means to abolish. Here, “the sages’ laws” refers to the standards established by ancient sage kings, such as the Five Virtues. Abolish the systems of the Three Kings, then discard the rules of the Five Emperors as well. Treat them like straw dogs, cast aside once their use is over, and do not set them out for display. Forget the fish trap and the snare—tools for catching fish and animals—and reach a state in which self and things are both forgotten. Only then can one speak of the profound and discuss the far-reaching Dao and De.

Pull out the Twelve Pitch Pipes and melt down the yu and se zithers; stop up Music Master Kuang’s ears, and only then will people throughout the world begin to cultivate their innate hearing. Erase ornamentation and scatter the five colors; seal Li Zhu’s eyes, and only then will people throughout the world begin to cultivate their innate sight.

Note: Beautiful sounds and vivid colors are prized by those with ears and eyes. Each person is born with a particular endowment; when drawn along by such preferences, one’s nature and life are depleted. Destroy the external things people prize, set aside outward enticements, and let nature take its course. Then hearing and sight can each be preserved, and people can cultivate what is innate in them.

Commentary: “Pull out” means to remove; “melt” means to liquefy. The yu resembles a sheng: its pipes are arranged in a gourd-shaped chamber, with reeds fitted at their ends. The se is eight feet and one inch long, one foot and eight inches wide, and has twenty-seven strings. Tradition says that Fuxi invented it. People become absorbed in musical tones such as gong and zhi, admiring Music Master Kuang’s keen hearing; their eyes fix on colors such as black and yellow, and they look up to Li Zhu’s sharp sight. Their minds are thus driven outward, and their ears and eyes are worn down in turn. Pulling out the pipes and breaking the strings, abandoning ornate music, clothing, and patterns, and sealing Li Zhu’s eyes all serve to remove the roots of deliberate pursuit of sensory skill. This allows people throughout the world to cultivate their own hearing and sight without being ruled by their ears and eyes.

Block the ears of Shi Kuang, the legendary master of musical discernment, and remove the leaders who unsettle the people. Then people can preserve their own nature and will no longer lose their way. Let the ears hear every sound fully, yet also listen back toward where there is no sound; let the eyes see everything freely, yet also turn inward to contemplate what has no form. Then the life force that arises naturally will unfold of itself. This is the utmost Wuwei (non-action). Where, then, is there any distinction between brightness and darkness, excellence and inferiority? When the world is at peace, all things preserve their De (Virtue/Power) together. People draw in their outward hearing and sight, and nourish their inner understanding. This is called holding it within, embracing it, and caring for it.

Destroy the hooks and cords, cast aside the compass and square, and break the fingers of Gong Chui, the legendary master craftsman. Then people everywhere will each reveal their own skill. As the saying goes: “The greatest skill looks like clumsiness.”

Note: Spiders and dung beetles are tiny creatures, yet they weave webs and roll dung balls. They need no craftsman to teach them, which shows that every creature has its own abilities. Their strengths may differ, but if none dares stray from a prescribed method, they may appear skilled yet clumsy. So someone adept at employing people lets those good at making squares make squares, and those good at making circles make circles, allowing each to use their strengths. Let people settle into their own nature, and do not demand that everyone master Gong Chui’s techniques. Though people’s skills may differ and seem clumsy, each person in the world can then put their abilities to use. This is the greatest skill. If we act in accordance with people’s inborn capacities, the measuring tools can be discarded, and the craftsman’s fingers need not be preserved.

Commentary: A hook is a tool for making curves; a cord is used to make straight lines; a compass draws circles, and a square draws right angles. Gong Chui was a craftsman in the time of Yao, though some accounts say he served Shun. Li means to break or sever. Gong Chui was naturally ingenious and could use tools such as hooks and cords to devise methods for making circles and squares. This led people throughout the world to imitate him, abandoning their own inborn abilities in pursuit of external things. If the measuring tools were discarded and Gong Chui’s fingers broken, people would reveal their skills within their own proper spheres. Spiders weave webs and dung beetles roll dung balls—how could they have done so by deliberately admiring and pursuing artificial techniques? Their skill comes from nature. This interpretation is drawn from the Laozi.

Remove the standards of conduct exemplified by Zeng Shen and Shi Yu, silence the teachings of Yang Zhu and Mo Di, and cast aside benevolence and righteousness. Only then will the world’s De return to its source and unite wondrously with the Dao (the Way).

Note: Remove human leaders whose actions disturb the group, and people throughout the world will each recover their simplicity and return together to Dark De.

Commentary: Xue means to remove; qian means to close or silence; rang means to cast aside; xuan means the source, or the Dao. Zeng Shen was renowned for filial piety, and Shi Yu for upright loyalty; Yang Zhu and Mo Di were naturally skilled in debate. Each of these four had a particular gift, yet they led people seeking to learn throughout the world to abandon their own nature and imitate others. Thus the original text goes on to say that standards of conduct such as loyalty and trustworthiness should be removed, and that …

Close the mouths that boast of eloquence. Discard benevolence that is contrived and forced, and cast aside righteousness pursued for the sake of outward reputation. Then the myriad things will not lose their nature. Each person will be at ease in their own way, following their inborn nature and preserving the order of things, naturally merging with the mysterious Great Dao (the Way).

If people keep their cleverness within and do not show it off, the world will suffer no harm. If they do not flaunt their sharp ears and keen eyes, the world will not thereby be visited by distress. The commentary explains: “Shuo” means to melt away or destroy; “lei” means distress. Distress arises only because some people display their cleverness, disrupting and harming the lives of the common people. If they keep their cleverness within and do not show it off, all things can be content and joyful, free of distress.

If people keep their knowledge within proper bounds, the world will not be confused. If they hold to their De (Virtue/Power) and do not stray from their proper place, the world will not fall into deviance. The commentary says that if people understand their own limits, cultivate De within their proper bounds, and do not let their minds run wild, they can walk the right path and roam freely between Heaven and Earth without confusion. How, then, could there be disorder, sorrow, or deviation?

Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, Yang Zhu, Mo Di, Shi Kuang, Gong Chui, Li Zhu, and others were people who displayed their De and abilities openly, using them to impress others and disrupt the world. The commentary explains that each had an exceptional gift, and so people everywhere rushed to imitate them. In imitating them, they lost their own nature. These figures became sources of disorder because people lost their nature through following them. The greatest calamity in the world is the loss of the self.

The commentary explains further: The people mentioned above were more gifted than others, yet they could not contain their brilliance and blend into ordinary life. Instead, they competed to gain fame and display their De outwardly, leading all things to follow them. By showing off before the crowd, they made people throughout the world forget their own De and lose the way back to their roots. This is the source of people’s loss of self.

Therefore, such a system of standards has no practical use. The commentary explains: Standards in accord with people’s nature allow their sight to reach no farther than they can see, so that everyone can see clearly; their hearing to reach no farther than they can hear, so that everyone can hear and understand; their skills to reach no farther than they can manage, so that everyone can do things well; their knowledge to reach no farther than they can comprehend, so that every nature can find ease; and their De to reach no farther than they can bear, so that everyone can be at ease with their own De. Why establish standards that exceed people’s natural capacities and proper bounds, making everyone rush after them without being able to return to themselves?

The commentary says that acting in accord with one’s nature means that action naturally follows that nature; this is the subtlety of the Way’s standards. Yet Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, and the others used their own standards to lead the people. They did not benefit their own age, but instead harmed later generations. Even if such standards are established, they are ultimately of no use.

Do you not know what the “Age of Perfect De” (the ancient age when Daoist virtue was at its purest) was like?

Long ago there were twelve ancient rulers: Rongcheng, Dading, Baihuang, Zhongyang, Lilu, Lixu, Xuanyuan, Hexu, Zunlu, Zhurong, Fuxi, and Shennong. In their time, people recorded events by tying knots, using them only to mark what mattered. There were no histories yet, and people did not know the order in which these rulers had lived. Sometimes they carved notches in wood as evidence; sometimes they tied knots as signs, using these to express trust. Those above and below lived in harmony, and customs were simple and sincere. Thus the Classic of Changes says: “In ancient times, people governed by tying knots. Later, sages introduced writing and tally contracts.”

People found their own food delicious and their own clothes comfortable. They enjoyed the customs of their region and were content with where they lived. A commentator explains that those who are satisfied with what they ordinarily have find their food delicious and their clothes fine; those who are always seeking greater luxuries are never content. A further commentary says that people kept to their proper place and did not pursue ostentation, so they found their lives good; they lived in harmony with one another, so they enjoyed local customs; and their minds were calm and untroubled, so they were content with their homes.

Neighboring countries could be seen from one another, and the calls of chickens and dogs could be heard across their borders, yet people grew old and died without visiting one another. This means they had almost no desire to seek things beyond their own communities. Each lived self-sufficiently and followed the natural course of life; there was no need to travel between places. In this way, they attained Wuwei (non-action).

An age like this was one of “Perfect Governance,” when rule had reached its ideal. People had no desires or urge to seek more; their hearts held the Dao and embraced De. How could such an age not be called perfectly governed?

Today, however, things have come to this: people crane their necks and rise onto their toes, hoping only that some place has a worthy person. They pack provisions and hurry off to visit. At home they leave their families behind; away from home they abandon the duties entrusted to them by their rulers. Their footprints reach the borders of feudal states, and the tracks of their carts cross one another even a thousand miles away.

A commentator says that even the pursuit of Perfect Governance can bring about such troubles. A further commentary explains that “packing provisions” means carrying food for the journey. When the influence of the highest principle spreads and becomes an ideal people admire, those nearby all learn to honor the worthy. They then travel everywhere to seek teachers and visit those who know the Dao, craning their necks and striding off to distant places. Cart tracks and footprints stretch far away, and they carry provisions for a thousand miles without finding the journey burdensome. As a result, they neglect their families at home, which is unfilial, and abandon their duties to their rulers, which is disloyal. The signs of pursuing Perfect Governance ultimately produce these troubles.

This is the result of those in power placing too much value on cleverness. Here, “those above” means the ruler. When a ruler prizes knowledge especially highly and promotes the honoring of the worthy, these troubles arise.

Rulers esteem the various methods of governing the world and delight in using clever devices to govern the myriad things. This is how the present state of affairs came about.

If a ruler pursues cleverness and talent without following the Great Dao, the world will fall into great disorder.

【Commentary】A ruler in a position of authority who cannot practice Wuwei (non-action), calm detachment, and clear stillness, becoming empty and open in harmony with the Dao, but instead relies on clever devices to govern the myriad things, will inevitably harm them and bring the world into great disorder. Laozi said, “Governing a state through cleverness brings calamity upon the state.”

Why do we know that this is so?

【Commentary】The text first poses a question, then explains the reason.

The more bows and crossbows, bird-catching nets, tethered arrows, and other ingenious hunting methods there are, the more readily birds are startled into frantic flight through the air. The more fishhooks and bait, fishing nets, lift nets, and bamboo fish traps there are, the more readily fish are startled and scatter through the water. And the more methods there are for catching animals—spiked barriers, rope nets for trapping beasts, and rabbit snares—the more readily animals are startled and scatter across the marshes.

【Note】The tighter the capture, the more ingenious the ways birds and beasts find to evade it. If even animals cannot be outwitted by clever schemes, how much less can people be? Those who govern the world can only refrain from relying on cleverness; once they rely on it, there is nothing remarkable about their rule.

【Commentary】The bi was a small net, named for its handle, which resembled the Bi constellation. Shooting an arrow attached to a cord was called “yì.” The gu and zeng were both kinds of nets; the gou was a curved bamboo fishing trap, also called a quan. Xiaoge were barriers fitted with spikes, like the deer-antler-shaped obstacles used today. Luoluo were rope-net devices for catching wild beasts, while jiafu were rabbit snares. How could using clever schemes to control the myriad things fail to bring the calamity of turmoil? This is why a state cannot be governed by relying on cleverness.

The more deceit, cunning, sophistry, and ingenious arguments about “hardness and whiteness,” “disentangling and defilement,” and “sameness and difference” there are, the more the people will be confused by disputation.

【Note】What those in high positions esteem, those below them find difficult to be content with taking in moderation. People naturally seek little, but when they chase excessive desires, they lose their nature.

【Commentary】Clever techniques and deceit gradually seep in and harm the myriad things. “Jiexia” refers to smooth, artful cleverness and can also mean crafty guile; “disentangling and defilement” refers to deceit. “Hardness and whiteness” means sophistry about hardness and whiteness, while “sameness and difference” means ingenious arguments about what is alike and what is different. Such slippery, artful disputation and talk of sameness and difference often damage the truth and do nothing to benefit society or the human heart. Only those who take the long view may seem inarticulate; people of shallow understanding, by contrast, are easily misled by petty arguments. Thus the world repeatedly falls into great disorder, rooted in its fondness for cleverness.

【Commentary】“Meimei” describes a state of dimness and obscurity. Forget preconceived judgments and let the myriad things follow their own course, and the world will be peaceful and settled. Cling to outward signs and employ clever schemes, and the world will fall into great disorder. Those above and below are plunged into confusion because they delight in cleverness.

Thus, everyone in the world knows only to pursue what they do not know, and no one thinks to seek what they already know.

【Note】Failing to seek the truths one already knows and instead pursuing what one does not know is to abandon oneself and imitate others.

People can understand only what falls within their proper place, yet they insist on seeking far and wide for what lies beyond it. How could this not lead them astray?

Everyone knows not to do what is considered bad, yet no one understands why what is considered good is good.

Making a show of the good one has decided is good is precisely what gives rise to rivalry and the esteem of certain things above others.

What is called “bad” is the conduct of people like Jie and Robber Zhi; what is called “good” is the conduct of the sages. Robber Zhi did what was bad and seized the fields of Dongling. Tian Heng, a powerful minister of the state of Qi during the Spring and Autumn period, followed the sages’ example, yet stole the state of Qi. Zang and Gu, two boys who tended sheep for others, each finished their task, but both lost their sheep. They took different paths, yet the outcome was the same. Though Jie and Robber Zhi acted differently, they did equal harm to their inborn nature. Thus, foolish people of the world pass judgment on good and bad at will; in truth, neither good nor bad is enough to settle the matter.

That is why the world fell into great disorder: above, people went against the light of the sun and moon; below, they wore away the essence of mountains and rivers; and between them, they disrupted the order of the four seasons. Not a single creeping creature on the ground or bird flying through the sky escaped losing its nature. The love of cleverness and cunning disturbed the world to such an extent!

Good fortune and misfortune, regret and worry, all arise from action. And actions driven by cleverness can indeed shake Heaven and Earth and bring the myriad things under control. How, then, could a ruler fail to forget cleverness and scheming?

The word “that is why” links this passage to what came before: the world fell into great disorder because people used cleverness and clung to outward conduct. “Going against” means defying; “wearing away” means eroding; and “disrupting” means ruining. Creatures that move along the ground are called “creepers,” while those that fly through the air are called “flutterers”; both are small-bodied creatures. Clinging to outward conduct and using cleverness cause great harm: they stir Yin and Yang, shake Heaven and Earth, obscure the sun and moon and even bring about eclipses; make mountains collapse and rivers run dry; throw cold and heat out of order and bring wind and rain at the wrong times; and cause birds, beasts, and creatures of land and water to lose their nature. The harm that love of cleverness brings to the myriad things reached such a degree.

Since the Three Dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou, people have cast aside those who are simple and genuine, preferring instead the clever and deceitful. They have abandoned quiet contentment and Wuwei (non-action), preferring instead to chatter on while instructing others. Such incessant talk has already thrown the world into disorder.

“Chatter on” means persistently instructing others according to one’s own ideas.

“The Three Dynasties” refers to Xia, Shang, and Zhou. “Simple and genuine” describes those who are honest and unadorned; “restlessly active” describes those who are frivolous and quick-witted. “Cast aside” means to abandon, and “chatter on” means to keep teaching others the same ideas. In the most simple and genuine age of antiquity, people were plain and unadorned. They modeled themselves on the roundness of Heaven and were clear and empty; they modeled themselves on the squareness of Earth and were still and settled. People lived together in groups just like birds and beasts, without distinctions based on cleverness… (The original text ends here unfinished.)

When the simple and honest customs gradually faded and people turned away from the Dao (the Way) and De (Virtue/Power), the Five Constant Virtues and the teachings of the sages came into view. In the Three Dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou, people relied ever more heavily on cleverness: they cast aside plain, honest scholars and favored the frivolous and quick-witted, those skilled at flattery. They abandoned a life free of desire and content in its own peace, turning instead to rule all things through the mind and moral instruction. The world fell into disorder as a result. How could this not be lamentable?

Nanhua Zhenjing Zhushu, juan 12 (Commentary and Subcommentary on the True Classic of Southern Florescence, volume 12)