《南華真經註疏》Vol. 13

I have heard of allowing all things under Heaven to live freely and treating them with tolerance, but never of governing the world by means of governance.

Guo Xiang’s commentary: When each thing is allowed to live freely in its own way, the world is naturally well ordered. Deliberate governance, by contrast, brings disorder. As long as people live without outside interference, their nature and life will not stray from their original likes and dislikes. If those in high positions cannot practice Wuwei (non-action) and are always intent on doing something, the people will follow their example. Then inducements, envy, cravings, and desires will multiply, and the people’s nature will be disturbed. What makes a sage ruler worthy is not skill in governing, but Wuwei: allowing all things to develop according to their own circumstances.

Explanatory note: “You” means tolerance; “zai” means living freely; and “zhi” means to govern or control. The allegory says that the sages allow all things to follow their own nature and live freely, treating them with tolerance, and so the world is peaceful and still. But if they impose teachings and commands to control the people, all things lose their nature, just as Bole—the skilled horse trainer—deliberately trains horses. “Allowing all things to live freely” expresses concern that their nature might be disturbed; “treating all things with tolerance” expresses concern that their De (Virtue/Power) might be changed by outside forces.

Explanatory note: Here, “nature” means the inborn principle received by each life; “De” means the capacities and expressions that each thing possesses in itself. The idea of “allowing and tolerating” is put forward to prevent the nature of all things from being disturbed and their De from changing. If things are not allowed to live freely according to their nature, they may stray into perversity and lose that nature. If they are not treated with tolerance, they may imitate other things and alter their own De.

When the nature of all things under Heaven is undisturbed and their De does not change, what need is there for anyone to govern the world?

Guo Xiang’s commentary: Without deliberate governance, things will not change their nature or be disturbed.

Explanatory note: If all things have sound natures and each rests in its own De, why trouble oneself with laws and commands? Governance through purposeful action is inferior to Wuwei; having laws and commands is inferior to having none.

In ancient times, Yao governed the world, making everyone in it joyful and content; people took pleasure in their own nature. Yet this was not true stillness. Jie governed the world, leaving everyone distressed and worn down; people suffered because their nature was suppressed. This, too, was not happiness.

Guo Xiang’s commentary: Although Yao allowed everyone in the world to rest in their own nature, his methods still amounted to governance. Yao and Jie ruled in different ways, one good and the other bad, yet both caused people in later generations to lose their quiet contentment. People began competing to pursue and prize certain things, while fearing and looking down on one another, and could no longer find contentment in themselves. In this respect, the two were alike. So instead of praising Yao and condemning Jie, it is better to set both aside.

Explanatory note: “Tian” means calm; “yu” means joy; and “cui” means distress and exhaustion. Yao transformed the people through his virtue, and they sang happily, even playing the game of striking clods of earth—a pastime of the ancients. But this, too, departed from their original, tranquil nature. Jie harmed all things and left the people distressed, likewise violating their nature for happiness. Yao and Jie differed greatly in their achievements and in the eras in which they ruled, yet both caused all things to lose their nature.

If people cannot be tranquil, joyful, and content, they cannot be said to possess De (Virtue/Power). Without De, yet hoping to endure for long—there is no such thing under Heaven.

Note: Only those who are tranquil, joyful, and content can endure for long.

Commentary: If Yao could not remain tranquil yet governed the people, or Jie could not be joyful yet seized wealth by force, neither would accord with the simple and peaceful nature of things. There has never been an example under Heaven of someone who hoped to endure for long in this way.

When people feel excessive joy, they unduly strengthen Yang Qi; when they feel excessive anger, they unduly strengthen Yin Qi. When both Yin and Yang are strengthened in this way, the seasons fall out of their proper course, and cold and heat can no longer be harmonized. Do they not then turn around and harm the human body? This makes people’s joy and anger excessive and their ways of living abnormal.

Commentary: “Strengthen” means to help something grow. Joy arises from the Hun, while anger arises from the Po. People receive Yin and Yang Qi, just as Heaven and Earth do. When Yao made the people joyful, he strengthened Yang Qi, making the climate warm and pleasant. When Jie made the people angry, he strengthened Yin Qi, making the climate cold and harsh. Once people’s joy and anger become excessive, the workings of Heaven and Earth also fall out of order: midsummer is no longer hot, and midwinter brings no frost. With harmony lost and natural disasters added to the mix, people suffer more illness. Does this not turn around and harm the human body? One must not act recklessly or impose laws by force, for that will inevitably cause harm.

When thoughts and plans cannot settle into their proper course, the Way of centrality and balance cannot be fulfilled.

Note: These are all the kinds of actions associated with Yao and Jie: they drove the people’s joy and anger to excess, thereby bringing about these calamities. Among all things between Heaven and Earth, human beings have the keenest awareness and are most able, through joy and anger, to disturb living beings and unsettle Yin and Yang. Thus, when a ruler’s successes and failures stir mixed feelings of joy and anger among the people, harmony between cold and heat is destroyed, the seasons lose their order, laws and norms fall into confusion, and all things wither and perish prematurely.

Commentary: When a ruler’s actions are obstructed, joy and anger arise in response. This causes the people’s deliberations to lose their true nature and violates established norms, ultimately leading to ruin.

Thus, deceitful and contentious people, those who set themselves apart in pride, and those who are fierce and domineering began to appear in the world. Later came the wicked deeds of a Robber Zhi, as well as the good deeds of men such as Zengzi and Shi Yu. Therefore, even if all the world’s wealth were used to reward good people, it would still not be enough.

Note: If people do good only because they covet rewards, there can never be enough rewards to go around.

Even if all the world’s wealth were used to punish evil people, it would still not be enough.

Note: If people stop doing evil only because they fear punishment, punishment can never keep them in check.

Commentary: “Qiao” means deceitful, “jie” means to accuse, “zhuo” means distinctive or outstanding, and “zhi” means fierce. Thus, a climate of deceit and pretense, mutual accusation, proud isolation, and fierce contempt for others began to appear in Yao’s time. Later came wicked people such as Robber Zhi, as well as good people such as Zengzi and Shi Yu. Once good and evil had become evident, rewards and punishments followed. People did good out of greed for rewards and stopped doing evil out of fear of punishment. Even if all the world’s axes and battle-axes were brought out, they would not suffice to punish every evildoer; even if the world’s treasuries were emptied…

These things are all beneficial in themselves, but they are not enough to reward good conduct or meet every need. Thus, even all the resources in the world are not enough to serve as the basis for rewards and punishments.

Commentary: Only by forgetting rewards and punishments and following one’s true nature can one be truly fulfilled.

After the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, people clamored and contended, making rewards and punishments their chief concern all day long. How could they find any time to settle the true nature of their own life—their inborn nature and the reality of life itself?

Note: Forgetting rewards and punishments and naturally turning toward goodness, thereby bringing nature and life to rest—this is true fulfillment. Rewards and punishments were originally tools used by sage kings to assess merit and fault; they were not meant to induce people deliberately to do good or frighten them into avoiding evil. When governance reaches the highest order, these methods should be set aside, so that people can return to a state of purity and unity. Yet after the Three Dynasties, people kept pursuing the old practices of rewards and punishments, clamoring and competing, and treating external rewards and punishments as matters of great importance. How could they find any time to settle the true nature of their own life?

Commentary: “Xiongxiong” describes clamor and contention, and also the struggle to get ahead. People fear punishment and execution, while longing for high office and generous emoluments. Their minds fill with countless calculations, and their actions branch off in every direction; they clamor and compete without knowing when to stop. Since the Xia and Shang dynasties, this tendency has gradually grown stronger. Rewards and punishments disturb people’s minds, keeping them in a constant bustle. How could they find any time to settle their life and enjoy a clear and tranquil mind?

If one delights in displaying intelligence, one becomes immersed in sights and sounds; if one delights in fame, one becomes immersed in sound.

Commentary: “Yue” means to be influenced and become attached; “yin” means to be immersed and unable to leave. Longing for worldly splendor or admiring a quiet, austere life can also keep people ensnared in sights and sounds.

If one delights in benevolence, one disrupts De; if one delights in righteousness, one goes against what is right.

Commentary: De should not be subject to partial preference; to favor it selectively is to disrupt De. What is right should not be forced into judgments of right and wrong; insisting on such judgments goes against what is right. “Bei” means to oppose or go against.

If one delights in ritual, one encourages artifice and formalities; if one delights in music, one encourages excessive indulgence.

Commentary: Ritual includes elaborate forms such as raising the hands and kneeling, as well as distinctions in ceremonial rank. Music includes compositions such as “Xianchi” and “Daxia,” musical modes, and various instruments. To delight in ritual can encourage empty display and artifice; to become absorbed in music can encourage lavish excess in performance.

If one delights in the ways of the sages, one encourages worldly skills; if one delights in cleverness, one encourages all manner of ills.

Note: What accords with the right way need not be deliberately cherished. Once one becomes attached to cherishing it, the harm of indulgence and opposition follows. “Xiang” means to encourage or promote.

Commentary: Esteeming the traces left by the sages encourages worldly skills; becoming enamored of schemes and calculations aggravates the ills of dispute over right and wrong.

If people under Heaven are to settle the true nature of their lives, they may keep or discard the eight things mentioned above.

Note: Whether one keeps or discards them, one need not become attached. By following what each person has received as their proper share, nature and life can be brought to rest.

Commentary: The eight things refer to intelligence, benevolence, righteousness, ritual, music, sagehood, wisdom, and so on. The point is that what people have received…

Li Kuang, a master musician of antiquity, and Zeng and Shi—Zeng Shen and Shi Yu, renowned for their virtue—each had their own proper role. If they could live in accordance with their nature, that would be enough. The nature of ordinary people does not take such figures as its aim. To devote oneself to admiring them is to go against one’s original nature, so such admiration should be set aside.

The world first came to know people who could not abide in their own nature and life because someone had taken these people’s ways, cut them apart and hemmed them in, then hurriedly put them into practice. In this way, the world was thrown into disorder.

Note: If these eight models are all preserved and upheld, people cannot be left to follow their own nature. They will therefore be constrained and made to act in haste.

Commentary: “Luǎnjuǎn” describes a state of being cramped and constrained; “cāngnáng” describes acting hurriedly and under pressure. All the living beings in the world pursue things beyond their proper lot. Unable to abide in their natural endowment, they constrain themselves, boast of refined human accomplishments, and rush after external things. Their inability to forget the eight models mentioned earlier gives rise to these afflictions.

Yet people in the world have begun to venerate these models and make them rules to follow. How foolish!

Note: It is already a mistake to be unable to set these things aside. To go further and venerate them as precious standards is more foolish still.

Commentary: The eight ways mentioned earlier disrupt the natural order. To be unable to forget and discard them is already a great delusion; now people honor them and take them as models. This is truly lamentable.

Do people merely let these things pass and then discard them? They even fast as they expound them, kneel as they make offerings, and beat drums, sing, and dance in their praise. What can I do about such conduct?

Note: People do not simply let these things pass; they cherish them in this way.

Commentary: The eight doctrines mentioned earlier are like straw dogs used in sacrifice: once the ceremony is over, they should not be kept. Yet people fast and lecture with great solemnity, observe ritual propriety, and kneel to make offerings to one another as rulers and ministers. They beat drums and perform the Shao music, singing and dancing to the Zhang. They cherish things so fleeting as if they were precious. Zhuangzi can do nothing about it.

Therefore, when a noble person has no choice but to govern the world, nothing is better than Wuwei (non-action). Through Wuwei, people can then abide in their own nature and the realities of their lives.

Note: Wuwei does not mean folding one’s hands in silence and doing nothing. It means letting the myriad things act according to their own natures, so that their natural endowments and lives may be at peace. “Having no choice” does not mean being driven by threats or punishment. It means that the noble person holds fast to the Dao, embraces simplicity, and follows the inevitable course of things; the world will then naturally submit.

Commentary: The noble person is the sage. When the sage has no choice but to govern the world, Wuwei is always the guiding principle. Here, Wuwei does not mean folding one’s hands in silence and doing nothing at all. Even when the sage takes action, people can still enjoy their nature and life without hindrance.

Therefore, if someone values their own person more than governing the world, the world may be entrusted to them; if someone cherishes their own person more than governing the world, the world may be handed over to them.

In governing the world, such a person can be entrusted with it.

Commentary: If one treats oneself lightly and pursues only profit, abandoning oneself to be driven by external things, one cannot even bring peace to one’s own body and mind. How, then, could one govern the world?

Exegesis: Cherish yourself and regard profit lightly; value what is within and hold external things less dear. Care for your spirit and do not let worldly concerns disturb it. Only such a person can be entrusted with the world, sit at ease above all things, and let the world transform of its own accord.

Thus, as long as a noble person does not disturb the five organs—the heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys in Chinese medicine, which also refer to the inner body and mind—and does not flaunt cleverness or talent,

Commentary: Flaunting them causes harm.

Exegesis: The five organs are where the spirit resides, while cleverness and talent are expressed through the ears and eyes. If one constantly relies on discriminating thought and displays one’s cleverness and talent, the spirit will be busy within, and the ears and eyes will be exhausted without.

When still, he is like a seated corpse; when active, he appears like a flying dragon. In silence, he is as quiet as a deep abyss; when he speaks, his voice is like thunder.

Commentary: Whether serving in office or withdrawing from it, remaining silent or speaking, the mind clings to nothing and leaves everything to nature.

Exegesis: When the Sage is still, he is silent as a corpse; when he acts, he is like a flying dragon soaring through the sky. Are stillness and movement, the Dao and its teaching, really governed by entirely different principles? The phrase “he sits like a corpse yet appears as a dragon; he is silent as an abyss yet speaks like thunder” shows that there is movement within stillness and stillness within movement, and that principle and teaching do not differ in essence.

The spirit stirs, and the Way of Heaven moves accordingly.

Commentary: The spirit acts in response to things, while the Way of Heaven follows the principles of nature.

Exegesis: “Shen” refers to the wondrous power that brings about the transformations of all things. Whether in motion or at rest, the Sage’s De accords with Heaven and responds to the growth and transformation of all things.

He is at ease and unhurried, dwelling in Wuwei (non-action), while all things move naturally, like dust carried along by a current of air.

Commentary: Like dust drifting of its own accord.

Exegesis: “Lei” means dust. At ease, unhurried, clear, and detached, he is like fine dust in open sky, stirred by the wind and left to drift or settle as it will. If so, what leisure would I have to govern the world deliberately?

Commentary: Simply let things follow their own nature.

Exegesis: People and things are equal and merge into one, together returning to nature. Why, then, labor to devise a separate method of governance?

Cui Qu asked Lao Dan, “If you do not govern the world, how can people’s minds be settled?” Lao Dan replied, “You must never disturb people’s minds.”

Commentary: Disturbing people’s minds harms the innate goodness they possess.

Exegesis: Cui Qu, whose given name was Qu, is of unknown origin. He asked Lao Dan: If you advocate tolerance and letting things be, and do not govern the world, how can people’s minds be guided toward goodness? Lao Dan replied that if people’s minds are allowed to be open and at ease, following their own nature, they will naturally accord with what is right. But if one deliberately establishes rules to govern all things, one will instead disturb people’s minds. The following passage says:

When people’s minds are suppressed, they sink; when stirred up, they strive upward.

Commentary: Suppress people’s minds and they become downcast; stir them up and they become overexcited. This shows how easily the human mind can be shaken.

The human heart always seeks to push others aside, yet, while staying in a lower position, also wants to rise to a higher one. These are common patterns: people struggle over who stands above and who below, even harming one another.

Note: Only by refraining from pushing others aside and not rushing to climb higher can one preserve oneself.

Commentary: When the mind and spirit sink into desire, every advance and retreat, up or down, is pulled along by external things. It is like being confined as a prisoner, or entangled in troubles and left to suffer.

What is soft and yielding can overcome what is hard and strong.

Note: This means that by being gentle and humble, one can soften even what is hard and strong.

Commentary: “Nuo yue” means soft and yielding. When people deliberately correct their nature and make a show of being yielding, they are trying to subdue what is hard and strong.

When one pursues fame single-mindedly and deliberately polishes one’s conduct, anger in the heart burns like a blazing fire, while coldness chills like solid ice.

Note: The heat of blazing fire and the cold of solid ice both arise when feelings of joy and anger build up without end. If one does not deliberately polish or embellish things, but lets each thing preserve its own nature, where would such extreme feelings, like ice and charcoal, come from?

Commentary: “Lian” means striving for fame, and “gui” means to injure. Deliberately shaping one’s words and actions is an attempt to outdo others in everything. Going against one’s nature gives rise to anger, with a chill as deep as solid ice; following one’s inclinations gives rise to joy, fierce as scorching fire.

Thoughts change so quickly that, in the space of a bow and a nod, they have already traveled beyond the Four Seas.

Note: This describes how customs and human feelings are stirred by external things.

Commentary: A mind that pursues external circumstances can spread through all ten directions in an instant. How much more, then, will it become entangled in affairs beyond the Four Seas in the brief space of a bow and a nod?

When the human heart is still, it is deep as an abyss. Once it stirs, it is as if suspended in the heavens, leaping without pause.

Note: When still, it can be made deep as an abyss; when it moves, it is like something hung in the sky, leaping continuously.

Commentary: The desirous mind has no fixed standard. At times it grows still, like water reaching a deep pool. But as soon as it encounters external circumstances, it begins to move, like a heavenly body suspended high above and turning without rest. When the mind stirs, it is as if hung in the sky, leaping ceaselessly.

What is restless, arrogant, and impossible to restrain—could it be anything other than the human heart?

Note: The human heart changes without limit. If it is allowed to run wild, it may instead become calm and open. But if one tries to govern and bind it by force, it rises onto its toes and struggles, growing restless and arrogant. Such momentum is hard to suppress.

Commentary: The human heart pushes others down and strives to rise above them; it also flares up fiercely over what it finds beautiful or ugly, and over joy and anger, becoming proud and self-important. It is difficult to restrain.

In ancient times, the Yellow Emperor first stirred the human heart through benevolence and righteousness.

Note: The Yellow Emperor did not deliberately lay claim to benevolence and righteousness. He simply became one with all things, and the traces of benevolence and righteousness appeared naturally. Once these traces appeared, people in later ages began to pursue them. Thus the traces left by the Yellow Emperor became something that stirred the human heart.

Commentary: The Yellow Emperor adapted to the times and established rules, nurturing the people with care. He did not cling to any one notion of “benevolence,” nor did he judge all things by “righteousness.” Later rulers, however, treated these practices as fixed standards, and the people came to bear the corresponding labels and constraints.

When sages began to disturb people’s original nature, the troubles began. The calamities that later arose among rulers of successive generations also stemmed from this. This was not the Yellow Emperor’s intention.

Yao and Shun worked to care for the people’s bodies, laboring until their thighs had grown so thin that no flesh remained, and their calves so thin that not even fine hairs remained. Inwardly, they worried over matters of benevolence and righteousness; outwardly, they carefully restrained their vital energy. They established laws and standards to regulate the world, yet even so, there were things they could not accomplish.

Explanation: “Arm flesh” refers to the flesh on the upper arm. Yao and Shun followed the Yellow Emperor’s example, and their bodies and minds grew thin from their labors: their thighs had no flesh left, and their calves no fine hairs. They hoped to bring peace to the people of the world and allow the myriad things to fulfill their natures. They worried inwardly over governing, while maintaining care and dignity outwardly. They took benevolence and righteousness as their principles and laws and standards as their rules, yet still could not avoid having to exile wicked people. There were things beyond their power.

Yao therefore exiled Huandou to Chong Mountain, relocated the Three Miao to Sanwei, and banished Gonggong to Youdu. This is an example of Yao’s inability to bring peace to the entire world.

Explanation: In ancient times, the Di Hong clan had an unworthy son whom people called “Chaos”—that is, Huandou. He allied himself with Gonggong and was exiled to a remote region in the south. The Jin Yun clan also had an unworthy son whom people called “Glutton”—that is, the Three Miao. The Three Miao had once been a vassal of Yao. Their state lay in the area of Yuzhang, east of Dongting Lake and west of Pengli Marsh, near the Southern Marchmount. The Shaohao clan had an unworthy son whom people called “Outcast”—that is, Gonggong. Gonggong had served as Yao’s official in charge of water. Youdu lay in the north, in the region of Youzhou.

The Book of Documents also records Yao’s execution of Gun, though it is not discussed here in detail. Huandou, the Three Miao, Gonggong, and Gun all harbored wicked intentions and would not submit to Yao’s instruction, so they were exiled to remote regions in the four directions. In that sense, it was Shun who dealt with Yao’s inability to govern the world. The matter is attributed here to Yao because, at the time, Shun was exercising Yao’s authority on his behalf.

By the time of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, the world was thrown into still greater turmoil.

Commentary: The titles of rulers such as Yao and Shun refer to the deeds they left behind in the world. I use those deeds to make a point, but the deeds are not the same as the sages themselves as I speak of them. As the state of the world steadily declined, people’s misunderstandings of the sages’ deeds deepened. The difference between what is subtle and what is crude is like the difference between a smooth road and a rough one. Would a traveler change their steps because of it?

The Way of the sages is one and continuous, yet it has been given different names, such as Yao, Shun, Tang of Shang, and King Wu of Zhou. These differences are only names left by their times; they do not reveal the true nature of the sages. Thus, the so-called Way of Yao and Shun is not limited to those two men. Even when they appeared worried and left behind deeds of benevolence and righteousness, the underlying source that led them to leave those deeds behind… (The original text ends here, unfinished.)

Only then can one preserve oneself.

Commentary: “Extend” means to continue and expand. From the time of the Yellow Emperor through the reigns of Yao and Shun, the deeds of the sages gradually became fixed on external things and disturbed the affairs of the world. By the time of the Three Kings—the rulers of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties—the disturbance and disorder had grown even worse.

Below them were Jie and Zhi.

Commentary: Jie and Zhi, legendary tyrants and thieves, acted as petty men and so occupied low positions. Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu acted as gentlemen and so occupied high positions.

Above them were Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu, and so the Confucian and Mohist schools arose one after another.

Commentary: This means that the Confucians and Mohists clung to the deeds of their predecessors, giving rise to disputes over right and wrong.

Then fondness and anger set themselves against each other, and people became suspicious of one another.

Commentary: Each took what they liked to be right and what they disliked to be wrong, and they suspected one another.

The foolish and the clever deceived one another.

Commentary: The clever showed off their ingenuity and unsettled the foolish, and the two sides mistreated each other.

The good and the not good accused one another.

Commentary: The good and the not good criticized each other.

The false and the sincere mocked one another.

Commentary: The false and the sincere ridiculed each other.

The world fell into decline as a result.

Note: People could no longer rest content in their own natural state.

Commentary: Disputes of every kind became entangled one after another, and the world fell into decline.

The De of the Great Dao was no longer unified, and people’s nature and lifespan became fragmented.

Note: People set up minor distinctions but refused to stop at what was appropriate.

Commentary: Fondness and anger, right and wrong, raged unchecked in the world. As a result, people’s allotted years were cut short and damaged, and their nature and lifespan became fragmented.

When people throughout the world prized cleverness and ingenuity, the people’s energy and effort were exhausted.

Note: Ingenuity has no end, and people pursue it without restraint, so its demands can never be satisfied.

Commentary: The sages pursued ingenuity without limit. How could the people not be exhausted?

Then axes and saws were used to cut and shape, the ink line to mark and measure, and hammers and chisels to bore holes.

Note: This is what it came to: carving and shaping people’s nature and life.

Commentary: The ink line is used to correct the straightness and crookedness of timber; ritual is used to prescribe ranks and distinctions among people; the hammer and chisel bore holes in wood; and penal law is used to deal with people’s bodies and even their lives. Craftsmen wield axes and saws, damaging the wood; sages put ritual and law into practice, damaging the Great Dao.

The world was in utter turmoil, and the source of its troubles lay in disturbing people’s hearts. Thus the worthy withdrew beneath high mountains and into rocky caves, while the ruler of ten thousand chariots sat uneasily in his court.

Note: If all were allowed to follow their nature and each rest in their proper place, the worthy and the foolish would each keep to their own nature, the noble and the lowly would each occupy their proper position, and rulers and ministers, those above and those below, would all settle appropriately. The world would then know no trouble. But now these many teachings disturb the hearts of people throughout the world, driving them to rush after things without end. As a result, no one of middling ability or below refrains from outwardly disguising their nature in order to mislead others. They detest what is upright and resent what is correct, while drawing others to them and forming factions. Thus those who act according to their true nature lose …

Those who make a prize of exalted status and false reputation have usurped the ruler’s authority. The ruler above is left deeply anxious, while the people below suffer bitterly.

The Commentary says: “Jiji” describes people trampling one another. Another interpretation takes the phrase to mean that the world is in chaos, with calamity arising from sages and wise men. The Way of the noble person has declined, and the noble person has no choice but to withdraw into the mountains and forests. Though the ruler sits in court, his heart is constantly troubled, for without worthy ministers to assist him, he fears the state will collapse and come to ruin.

Now among the condemned, those sentenced to death lie in rows beside the corpses; people wearing penal restraints follow one after another; victims of execution and mutilation are everywhere.

The Commentary says: “Death by dismemberment” means a punishment in which death is certain. “Hengyang” refers to penal restraints: devices that clamp the feet or encircle the neck are both called hengyang. In the time of the Six States during the Warring States period and at the end of the Zhou dynasty, it was precisely because people followed the old traces left by the sages that the five punishments, including tattooing and nose cutting, became widespread. The streets and lanes were full of people in restraints, and the roads were crowded with the dead and the maimed. “Lying beside one another” and “in sight of one another” both mean that there were many of them.

Yet the Confucians and Mohists began to exert themselves to the utmost, bustling about among the restraints and fetters. How excessive they are! They feel no remorse at all and know no shame.

The Annotation says: Fossilized Confucians cling to the old traces of the ancients, and so bring about calamities like these. They refuse to set aside those old traces and return to the unifying root. Instead, they keep straining to use old methods to deal with problems caused by old methods. Truly, they are utterly without remorse and know no shame.

The Commentary says: “Liqi” describes exertion. Here, “the traces of the sages” refers to the tools that harm things. Yet the Confucians and Mohists go out of their way to labor among restraints and fetters, clinging to old laws and teachings in an attempt to rescue the age from its ills. How could this fail to drive the world into extreme disorder? So the author sighs, grieving that they persist in their stubborn shallowness: what plainly calls for shame, they are somehow unable to feel ashamed of.

I wonder: could not the sages’ intelligence and skill become the pegs that join and secure the hengyang? Could not benevolence and righteousness become the holes and tenons of the fetters?

The Annotation says: The hengyang is joined and secured by pegs, while fetters work by means of holes and tenons. Sagely wisdom, benevolence, and righteousness are names for things that should have nothing to do with wrongdoing. But once the people take them as objects of reverence, arrogance and deceit arise from them. Once arrogance and deceit have appeared, penal restraints become necessary to guard against wrongdoing. So if the revered names are abandoned, pretence and deceit will not arise; and if they do not arise, the hengyang and fetters can be done away with. What need would there then be for holes, tenons, or pegs?

The Commentary says: “Joining pegs” means the pegs on penal restraints. “Zao” means a hole; the piece fitted into a hole is called a “ru.” Penal restraints are not secure without pegs, and fetters cannot be used without holes. In the same way, laws and institutions are difficult to establish without relying on the old traces of the sages; and wicked men like Jie and Zhi cannot promote their hypocrisy without the name of benevolence and righteousness. The sages’ old traces are the source of disturbance in people’s hearts, while benevolence and righteousness are the root of their harm.

How do you know that worthy men such as Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu would not become “whistling arrows” in the hands of tyrants and bandits like Jie and Zhi, used for their own purposes? A whistling arrow has a perforated head that makes a sound as it flies.

The commentary explains that a “whistling arrow” is an arrow that makes a piercing sound. Here, it means that the sagely wisdom represented by Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, and others might become a tool used by Jie and Zhi.

The explanatory note says that benevolence, righteousness, and sagely wisdom may also be taken up by violent people as a means to their ends. Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu might therefore be used by Jie and Zhi, just as someone might use a powerful arrow to shoot.

That is why it says: “Cut off the promotion of sageliness and discard clever schemes, and the world will be well governed.”

The commentary explains that this means following the natural condition of the myriad things and not disturbing them.

The explanatory note says that cutting off the tools that could be exploited by those who seize a state, and discarding the means on which violent people rely, will bring peace to the world. This is what is meant by “well governed.”

After the Yellow Emperor had become Son of Heaven, nineteen years passed, and his commands were carried out throughout the world.

The explanatory note says that the Yellow Emperor’s transformation through De and his edicts were widely implemented throughout the world.

He heard that Master Guangcheng lived on Mount Kongtong and went to pay him a visit.

The explanatory note says that Mount Kongtong lies north of Liangzhou. Master Guangcheng is another name for Laozi.

The Yellow Emperor said: “I have heard that you understand the Great Dao. I venture to ask: what is its essential substance? I wish to draw on the vital energy of Heaven and Earth to help the five grains grow and nourish the people. I also wish to establish offices that accord with the changes of Yin-Yang, so that each thing may live according to its nature. How should I proceed?”

The explanatory note says that the five grains are millet, glutinous millet, beans, hemp, and wheat. The Yellow Emperor wished to draw on subtle, profound principles and the vital energy of Heaven and Earth and Yin-Yang to help the grains grow and nourish the people. “Sui” means to accord with or follow. The Yellow Emperor wanted to model offices on Yin-Yang and assign their duties accordingly, so that the myriad things could grow in keeping with their nature.

Master Guangcheng replied: “What you ask about concerns only the outward forms of things.”

The commentary explains that to ask about the essential substance of the Great Dao while focusing only on particular things is to ask a very shallow question.

The explanatory note says that “er” means “you.” You want to grow the five grains and establish government offices according to Heaven, Earth, and Yin-Yang. These concerns remain at the level of outward traces and run counter to the profound and mysterious Great Dao, so Master Guangcheng rebukes you.

“What you wish to govern by establishing offices also concerns only the damaged state of things.”

The commentary explains that the myriad things can follow their natural course, but you want to bind them with official offices; this will cause them harm.

The explanatory note says that if you insist on establishing offices and assigning duties so that everything follows your arrangements, you will go against natural change and inevitably cause harm.

“Since you began governing the world, clouds have not yet gathered before rain falls, plants and trees wither before they have turned yellow, and the light of the sun and moon grows dimmer and dimmer.”

The explanatory note says that “zu” means “to gather.” If you use a human-made mindset to model Yin-Yang, establish officials, and govern the myriad things, disaster will follow: wind and rain will lose their balance, and cold and heat will fall out of order. Rain will fall before clouds have gathered, and trees will wither while still green. The light of the sun, moon, and stars will also grow dim and erratic; people’s minds and spirits will be unsettled, and the workings of Heaven will likewise fall out of harmony.

How could a narrow-minded, shallow flatterer ever be fit to discuss the Supreme Way?

The Yellow Emperor set aside the affairs of state for a time and cultivated himself through purification and abstinence. He gave up the dignity of the imperial throne, built a quiet chamber, spread clean white thatch across the floor, withdrew from the bustle, and lived there alone in stillness. Three months later, he went to visit Guangchengzi again.

Guangchengzi was lying with his head toward the south. The Yellow Emperor approached on his knees from downwind, bowed twice, and touched his forehead to the ground. He asked, “I have heard that you have mastered the Supreme Way. I venture to ask: how should I cultivate myself so that I may live a long life?”

Guangchengzi sprang up and said, “A good question! Come, and I will tell you about the Supreme Way. Its subtlety is profound and obscure; at its utmost, it is dim and still.”

The commentator says, “‘Profound and obscure’ and ‘dim and silent’ both describe the Supreme Way as formless, soundless, and beyond grasp. Zhuangzi and Laozi often speak of ‘nonbeing’ to explain that the source that brings forth the myriad things is not some material object. The myriad things arise naturally, without deliberate creation. Since they come forth of themselves, why then should one interfere with what has already arisen?”

Guangchengzi continued, “Do not look, do not listen. Guard your spirit and quiet your mind, and your body will naturally become upright.”

The commentator says, “By not deliberately looking outward, one can see clearly of its own accord; by not deliberately listening outward, one can hear of its own accord. When the mind and spirit are undisturbed, the body will not go astray.” The subcommentary explains, “When the ears and eyes do not chase after sounds and sights, and the spirit is guarded, external conditions cannot disturb the heart. When mind and body are united, they naturally accord with the Way.”

Guangchengzi said, “Be still and clear. Do not tire your body or stir your spirit. In this way, you can live a long life.”

The commentator says, “By following the body’s natural activity and remaining at ease and tranquil, one will not wither and die prematurely.” The subcommentary explains, “When the mind and spirit are clear and thought is quiet, the body is not wearied or pulled along by external things. The spirit remains at peace; the mind is at ease and the body unburdened. In this way, one can live a long life.”

Finally, Guangchengzi said, “When your eyes do not chase after what they see, your ears do not chase after what they hear, and your heart is not ruled by distracting thoughts, your spirit will remain within your body, and your body will endure.” The commentator says, “All this means acting in accordance with one’s own nature, and that is why one can live a long life.”

Follow your sight and hearing freely, without clinging to what you see and hear. When neither the senses nor external things stir the heart, the heart becomes settled.

Let the heart remain clear and perceptive, without becoming caught up in thought. Respond to things in step with the moment, while remaining inwardly tranquil. Keep the spirit detached and preserve the body, and you can endure for a long time.

“Gazing for a long time” means maintaining this state over time.

Guard your heart carefully in order to preserve your true nature. The commentary explains that this means forgetting the mind that makes distinctions and preserving what is naturally true.

Guard your outward conduct in quiet repose in order to keep to your proper place. The commentary explains that this means cutting off the pursuit of external things and remaining true to your proper place.

Knowing too much can bring harm. The annotation says that knowledge has no bounds, and so leads to ruin. The commentary explains that if you carelessly exhaust your spirit in thought, it will grow weary; how could your eyes and ears, spent on external things, escape harm?

“I raise you above the Great Brightness” means bringing you to the source of utmost Yang; “I lead you through the Gate of Deep Darkness” means bringing you to the source of utmost Yin. The annotation says that by plumbing the sources of Yin and Yang, one can rise above the Great Brightness and enter the Gate of Deep Darkness.

The commentary explains that Yang represents activity and Yin represents stillness; “rise forth” means to ascend. When the Perfected responds to things and acts, their discerning wisdom is like the sun and moon, hence the name “Great Brightness.” Reaching the source of utmost Yang means manifesting from the root, so it is said to “rise forth.” When there is no response to anything external and one becomes still, one is deeply rooted, silent, and settled: this is the source of utmost Yin. Drawing in outward expression and returning to the root is therefore described as entering the “Gate of Deep Darkness.” In explaining the principles of movement and stillness to the Yellow Emperor, Guangchengzi uses the two gates of Yin and Yang as metaphors.

Heaven and Earth each have their own functions, and Yin and Yang each have their own hidden workings. The annotation says that one need only let them follow their natural course.

Guard your body and heart carefully, and the myriad things will grow and flourish of themselves. The commentary explains that Heaven’s functions include the sun, moon, and stars, which shine over the four quarters and govern the myriad things. Earth’s functions include Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth, which sustain the growth of plants and animals and bear all living things. The two Qi of Yin and Yang follow their appointed courses through spring, summer, autumn, and winter, like the organs within the body, each with its own duties. If you let them follow their natural course, each will function as it should. Why go against nature and set up another governing power? You need only act through Wuwei (non-action) and carefully guard yourself. The myriad things will flourish of themselves. Why labor over them and bring trouble upon yourself?

I hold fast to a unified heart and dwell in the Way of harmony and balance. In this way, I have cultivated my body for twelve hundred years, and it has never grown old. The annotation says that this is to cultivate nature and life to their utmost, reaching the state of long life; only one who does not meet an untimely end can go on to influence the myriad things. The commentary explains that by remaining calm and detached, holding to singleness of purpose, and dwelling in the wondrous Way of harmony and balance, one nourishes and cultivates the body. However long one lives, one will not grow old.

The Yellow Emperor again bowed with a deep prostration and said, “What Master Guangcheng (a legendary immortal who attained the Dao) has said is precisely the Way of Heaven.”

Master Guangcheng said, “Come, I will tell you: things have no end, yet people always think they come to an end.”

The commentary says that the Way of Heaven is Wuwei (non-action), acting without contrivance.

The explanatory notes say that the changes of life and death, and the principles governing things, are inherently without end. Yet ordinary people, foolish and confused, believe that everything has a beginning and an end.

“Things are unfathomable, yet people always think they have limits.”

The commentary says that people have seen only one change in things.

The explanatory notes say that the transformations of things are impossible to measure and take myriad forms. Foolish people cling to what they see before them and so believe that things are limited and must have an end.

“Those who attain my Dao may become emperors in high antiquity, or kings in later ages.”

The commentary says that the titles “emperor” and “king” vary with the times. But those who attain the Dao share the same understanding of change and the ability to respond to what has no end.

The explanatory notes say that one who attains the Way of Nature might become a ruler like Fuxi or Shennong in an age of simplicity. In a time of declining customs, one might adapt to circumstances and become a ruler like Tang of Shang or King Wu of Zhou. The conditions under which they acted differed, being either favorable or difficult, but the Dao remained constant.

“Those who lose my Dao, when in high office see only brightness; when brought low, they become dust.”

The commentary says that one who loses the Dao of responding to endless change becomes confined to a single kind of change and cannot regard high and low as equal. Thus, when circumstances change, so does one’s state of mind.

The explanatory notes say that one who loses the Way of Wuwei becomes constrained by desire. While alive, such a person sees only the brightness before them; after death, they return to dust. Clinging to life and death, they cannot regard life’s rises and falls as equal, and so distinguish between “brightness” and “dust.”

“Now, all things grow from the soil and in the end return to it. So I am going to leave you.”

The commentary says that the soil has no preferences. Since all things arise from a mindless source, they should return to and remain in the Way of having no mind, each proceeding alone in accordance with the Dao.

The explanatory notes say that when things flourish, they grow from the earth; when they wither and decline, they return to it. All things in the world come from emptiness and, after death, return to stillness. Life and death are not fundamentally different, and one should not cling to either. Now I am going to leave you and let myself follow the Dao.

“Enter the Gate of the Infinite and roam through the Field of the Boundless.”

The commentary says that this is to move in step with the transformations of all things.

The explanatory notes say that one returns to the deep, still source, enters the Gate of the Infinite, follows the transformations between Heaven and Earth, and roams through boundlessness.

“My brightness is in accord with the sun and moon; my enduring nature is the same as Heaven and Earth.”

The commentary says that this means letting everything follow its natural course.

The explanatory notes say that “sharing their brightness” means having a brightness like that of the sun and moon; “being constant” means enduring like Heaven and Earth. How could one’s life be limited to just twelve hundred years?

“When I am unaware and unknowing, whether I depart far away or sink into a daze…”

The commentary says that the coming and going of all things cannot make me aware.

The Commentary and Subcommentary to the True Scripture of Southern Florescence says that the Sage has no fixed subjective opinions and is like a mirror: changes in external things stir a response, and the Sage responds accordingly, in harmony with those things. When nothing from outside prompts a response, the Sage remains calm and still, showing no activity.

Must everyone in the end die, while I alone endure forever?

The commentary says: Regard life and death as one whole, and you will understand that, whatever changes you undergo, none are separate from “you.”

The subcommentary says: When life and death are seen as one, and you understand that change has never been apart from yourself, then wherever you go or come from, you may be said to endure alone. People cling to the distinction between life and death, and so they experience sorrow and hardship.

Cloud-Commander, the deity who governs clouds and Qi, was traveling east. Passing the branch of Fufeng, he happened to meet Hunmeng, the undifferentiated vital energy between Heaven and Earth. Hunmeng was slapping his thighs, leaping and playing with delight.

The subcommentary says: The branch of Fufeng is the Wood Spirit who grows in the Eastern Sea; some also say that “Fufeng” refers to the wind. “Encounter” means to meet, “slap” means to strike, and “leaping” means to jump. This is an allegory. Qi is the source from which all things are born, and clouds are the source of rain that nourishes them. Trees symbolize the Yang of spring, while the East symbolizes benevolence and kindness. These images are used to explain that when a ruler governs all things, the first priority should be to extend De and its blessings.

Seeing Hunmeng, Cloud-Commander was struck by his unusual bearing and extraordinary behavior. He stopped and stood motionless, then asked, “Old man, who are you? What are you doing here?”

The subcommentary says: “Startled” describes a look of surprise and uncertainty; “motionless” means still and unmoving. “Old man” is a way to address an elderly person.

Hunmeng kept slapping his thighs and leaping with delight, without stopping. He replied only, “I am playing.”

The subcommentary says: This is roaming in accord with the transformations of nature.

Cloud-Commander said, “I have a question I would like to ask you.” Hunmeng looked up at him and said, “Ah!” Cloud-Commander said, “The Qi of Heaven is not flowing in harmony, and the Qi of Earth is blocked and unable to circulate. Yin and Yang, wind and rain, darkness and brightness—the six Qi—have also fallen out of balance. The seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter are out of order. Now I wish to gather the essence of the six Qi to nourish all living things. What should I do?”

The subcommentary says: When the Qi of Heaven and Earth cannot rise and descend in mutual exchange, it becomes blocked. “The six Qi” refers to Yin and Yang, wind and rain, darkness and brightness. “The four seasons” means spring, summer, autumn, and winter; when their order is disrupted, the sequence of the seasons has gone awry.

Hunmeng slapped his thighs and leapt with delight, shook his head, and said, “I don’t know. I don’t know.”

The subcommentary says: All things receive the Qi of nature and come into being. To make deliberate arrangements and impose governance would go against the transformations of nature, so Hunmeng shook his head and gave no answer.

Cloud-Commander could not get an answer. Three years later, he again traveled east. Passing through the outskirts of the state of Song, he happened to meet Hunmeng once more. Cloud-Commander was overjoyed and hurried forward, saying, “Has Heaven forgotten me?…”

Cloud General asked, “Have I forgotten what we spoke of before?” He then bowed and knocked his head to the ground again, pleading with Vast Obscurity for guidance.

Commentary: Gazing up at the heavens as before, he again brought up “forgetting what we spoke of before” in the hope that Vast Obscurity would remember what had happened.

Vast Obscurity said, “Wander wherever you please, without knowing what you seek.”

Note: In this way, what you seek comes naturally.

Commentary: Move through the world freely, without craving or grasping.

“Go wherever you please, without knowing where you are headed.”

Note: In this way, you naturally arrive where you are meant to go.

Commentary: When the mind clings to nothing and forgets the traces of deliberate action, there is no fixed destination.

“Though the things and people one encounters while wandering are many, one can see that none are thrown into confusion.”

Note: Inwardly fulfilled, one sees everything naturally fall into its proper order.

Commentary: Vast Obscurity’s spirit wanders through a vast realm. He encounters many things, yet with wisdom sees that the realm he observes is free of confusion. “Overwhelmingly numerous” means many.

“What would I know?”

Note: It is enough simply to do these things.

Commentary: Wander freely, go wherever you please, and meet all things with an open mind. Then each thing falls into its proper order. What could I know?

Cloud General said, “I thought I was simply going where I pleased, but the people follow me. I never intended this; I only faced the people because I had no choice. Yet now they take what I do as their example.”

Note: He responds to all things without deliberately leaving a trace, yet traces appear of themselves. He goes where he pleases without trying to attract the people, yet they follow of themselves. So the people take him as their example, and he, for his part, only acts this way because he has no choice.

Commentary: Like Vast Obscurity, I have no intention of controlling the affairs of the world. I only face the people because I have no choice. They then follow my example and take what I do as their model.

“I beg you to offer me one more piece of guidance.”

Commentary: He hopes to hear the essential point and resolve the doubts buried deep in his heart.

Vast Obscurity said, “If you disrupt the constant patterns of the Dao and go against the nature of things, the deep and mysterious Way of nature cannot be fulfilled.”

Note: If you follow the nature of things without deliberately governing them, their own tendencies will not be thwarted, and the constant patterns of the Dao will not be disrupted. Keep still and practice Wuwei (non-action); then things will naturally come to fulfillment.

Commentary: Disrupting the natural order and going against the true nature of things gives rise to cunning and manipulation, while nature’s own transformations cannot come to fruition.

“Break apart a herd of animals, and the birds cry out in alarm at night.”

Note: This happens because they have lost the peaceful conditions in which they lived.

Commentary: Deliberately setting an example and leaving traces causes harm and disaster: the herd is startled and scattered, and the birds take flight, crying out at night.

“Disaster spreads to plants and trees; calamity falls upon insects.”

Note: They can only bear the disaster through no fault of their own.

Commentary: Plants and trees wither before the season of frost, and calamity spreads to insects as well. In the word for “insects,” “bright” refers here to creatures that emerge into the sunlight as they awaken from hibernation.

“Alas, governing the people is precisely where the fault lies.”

Note: Deliberately leaving traces of governance is the very source of disorder.

Commentary: To think one is governing the world is, instead, to damage nature. Governing the people is itself the mistake.

Cloud General said, “If that is so, what should I do?”

Commentary: The Cloud General wanted to ask how to govern the world without exerting himself.

Hongmeng said, “Ah, the harm this causes is profound!”

Commentary: Your way of governing people is too forceful.

Commentary: This will bring serious harm and calamity. Hongmeng sighed repeatedly, urging the Cloud General to leave.

Hongmeng said, “Go lightly on your way.”

Commentary: “Xianxian” describes the manner of rising and moving. Hongmeng felt that the Cloud General could not relax and move naturally, so he told him to go back.

Commentary: “Xianxian” can also describe rising lightly. Worried that the Cloud General would bring calamity by governing the myriad things, Hongmeng showed him how to leave lightly, urging him to stop interfering and return to his natural nature.

The Cloud General said, “I have encountered a great difficulty. I hope you will offer me a word of guidance.”

Hongmeng said, “Ah, nourish the heart.”

Commentary: If the heart is harmed by being used too much, the way to nourish it is probably not to use it deliberately.

Commentary: The way to nourish the heart will be explained next.

“Simply rest in Wuwei (non-action), and the myriad things will transform of themselves.”

Commentary: “Simply” means that this alone is enough. When the heart rests in Wuwei, the myriad things transform on their own.

“Let go of your body and set aside your cleverness. Stop distinguishing between people and things; forget the boundaries between self and other.”

Commentary: Keep neither affairs nor external things in your thoughts. Quietly follow what is natural, and the myriad things will transform of themselves through Wuwei.

Commentary: “Distinctions” refers to those between people and things. Letting go of the body means forgetting oneself; setting aside cleverness means forgetting the mind’s thoughts. To forget both body and mind, and let go of both things and self, is to nourish the heart.

“Let yourself merge completely with boundless, undifferentiated nature.”

Commentary: No boundary remains between you and external things.

Commentary: “Mingxing” refers to the original Qi from which nature comes into being. Let body and mind dissolve into the vast, undifferentiated expanse: this is becoming one with nature.

“Release your thoughts and set aside the activity of your spirit, until you are still and without awareness.”

Commentary: This is “sitting in oblivion”—sitting quietly and forgetting body, mind, and external things—while allowing one’s nature to operate on its own.

Commentary: The “soul” here refers to the mind and spirit that are given to thought and action. “Release” and “set aside” mean to let go and eliminate. “Still and without awareness” means to wash away perception and thought from the mind, like withered wood and dead ashes, no longer thinking or acting deliberately.

“The myriad things come and go in profusion, each returning to its root. When they return to the root, they do not know it themselves.”

Commentary: Returning without self-awareness is the true return.

Commentary: “Yunyun” describes a multitude. The myriad things come and go, appearing and disappearing in transformation; none depart from nature, and all return to their root. So why would one need to use the mind deliberately to return to one’s nature?

“Remain in a state of undifferentiated unawareness, and never depart from your nature throughout your life.”

Commentary: “Hundun” refers to a state without distinctions or deliberate knowing. Only by remaining unaware and letting one’s nature return on its own can one stay rooted throughout life.

Commentary: In undifferentiated unawareness, one lets one’s nature operate on its own. Even amid a thousand transformations, one does not depart from nature. Deliberately trying to know with the mind instead takes one away from nature.

Commentary: To know deliberately and make oneself return runs counter to true return.

Commentary: If one uses the mind to pursue life’s root, one instead turns away from one’s natural nature.

“Do not ask about names or peer into what lies within. The myriad things grow of themselves.”

Commentary: Asking and peering instead disrupt the myriad things’ natural state of growth.

The Great Dao, the fundamental principle that lies beyond names, emotions, and thought, cannot be made clear through naming, nor grasped through feeling and reflection. If we question the Great Dao by naming it and probe it through emotion and thought, are we not moving far from the Dao? Only by letting go of emotional attachments and forgetting names and distinctions, allowing all things to change as they will, can we understand the principle by which they grow.

Yunjiang said, “Heaven has taught me De (Virtue) and shown me its principle through silence. I have sought it through my own experience, and only now have I begun to understand.”

Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “If one only knows how to keep asking, but cannot remain still, one will often lose oneself.”

The subcommentary says: “Heaven instructed him through words of the Dao and De, and guided him through subtle, wordless ways. Since he first took his place in the world, only now has he begun to understand.”

Yunjiang bowed again, touching his head to the ground, then rose, took his leave, and departed.

People in the world generally want others to be like themselves and dislike those who are different. Long immersed in custom, they have become deeply confused and attached: they are pleased when others agree with them, and disdain and dislike those who differ.

They want others to be like themselves but do not want others to be different because they are always thinking of surpassing everyone else.

Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “In their hearts, they want to rise above the group and become outstanding among others.”

The subcommentary says: “Those who think themselves right and others wrong, who like what is the same and dislike what is different, must want to make their own achievements and reputation shine and surpass everyone else.”

Yet how could those who make it their ambition to rise above others truly do so?

Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “Everyone makes surpassing others their ambition, so they remain ordinary. If I too want to surpass everyone, I am no different from them and cannot truly rise above them. Everyone is busy competing to get ahead. I alone can adapt to whatever I encounter and do not compete with anyone. I am therefore the one most unlike everyone else, and can consequently become their leader.”

The subcommentary says: “People make getting ahead of others their goal, but this is merely a common and shallow way of thinking. How could it truly set them above everyone else? Only by not competing to get ahead, and by adapting to ordinary ways without being confined by them, can one be different from others and outstanding among them.”

By relying on everyone, one can feel at ease with what one has heard of the Dao; relying only on one’s own skills and knowledge is no match for drawing on the abilities of many.

Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “What I hear by myself cannot match the breadth of many people’s skills and knowledge. So I feel at ease only by relying on everyone; if I do not rely on them, thousands upon thousands of people may become my opponents.”

The subcommentary says: “When we put the skills of many to use and draw on what many have seen and heard, we do not fall into conflict. This is what is meant by having those who understand observe and those who are wise make plans.”

If someone wants to govern another’s state but does not rely on everyone to contribute their abilities, that person is merely coveting the benefits of the Three Kings—the worthy rulers of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou—who governed all things, while failing to see the harm caused by taking charge of everything personally.

Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “If someone who wants to govern a state does not allow the people to govern themselves according to their own ways, but instead relies on personal arrangements, they are merely coveting the benefits of the Three Kings’ rule over all things, while failing to see the harm caused by personally managing everything. But were the benefits attributed to the Three Kings really gained through such a method?”

That is all: follow the natural workings of all things under Heaven and let them run their course.

Commentary: To govern a state through personal prejudice is merely to covet the benefits gained by the Three Kings, the sage rulers of antiquity, in ruling all things. Such a person does not realize that this will become a grave danger, leading to the loss of life.

If you govern another’s state with this in mind, what chance is there of succeeding by good fortune? And how many could succeed by luck without losing the state?

Commentary: “Good fortune” here means seeking benefits one has no right to claim. To treat an emperor’s state as private property and hope to secure personal good fortune through it will ultimately lead to ruin for everyone: the person is destroyed and the state falls. Success is one in ten thousand, which is why the text asks, “What chance is there?”

The chance of preserving another’s state is less than one in ten thousand. But losing that state takes only one misstep, and it brings calamities without end.

Note: Only when oneself and the world accord with one another can they accomplish things together. If now one person tries to rule the world autocratically, the world will become closed off and obstructed. How, then, could that person move freely? Thus, not only will the individual be unable to achieve anything; every part of the world will suffer endless loss.

Commentary: Those who rule as emperors and govern states with a hope of good fortune, seeking to preserve themselves, never succeed. The word “perish” refers to destruction; “more” means that failure and harm do not end there.

How sorrowful that those who possess territory do not understand this!

Commentary: This sentence laments the rulers’ failure to understand the harm caused by acting in pursuit of good fortune.

Those who possess territory hold great things.

Commentary: Emperors occupy exalted positions and rule the vast lands of the four seas; that is why they are said to hold “great things”—great matters and authority.

Those who hold great things cannot treat all things as objects to command at will.

Note: If one cannot put all things to use, but is instead made a servant by them, then one becomes merely one thing among many. How could one then command all things? Anyone unable to govern all things appropriately is unfit to hold the great affairs of the world.

Commentary: If someone single-mindedly seeks a state like those of the Three Kings, yet cannot let all things run their natural course and is instead made their servant, that person becomes merely one thing among many and, of course, cannot command all things.

By not making oneself the master of all things, one can put them to use appropriately.

Note: Those who can put all things to use are not in turn made their servants. When one is not made their servant, one is not constrained by external things. One can therefore let all things under Heaven follow their own nature and find their proper place.

Commentary: One is not made a servant by all things, while still responding to them and putting them to use.

Once we understand that those who can put all things to use are not ruled by external things, we can see that their activity extends far beyond governing the people of the world. They can also move through the Six Directions—the four quarters, Heaven, and Earth—and roam across the Nine Provinces, the lands of the world.

Note: By following the natural workings of all things under Heaven, one can move among them without being brought to a standstill.

Commentary: The sage understands nature and the transformations of creation. The sage puts the people’s intelligence to use and relies on the eyes and ears of all beings. This shows that those who can put all things to use are not ruled by external things. Is their role merely to sit upright in the emperor’s carriage and govern the people? …

Would this mean sitting in state in Fenyang, wearing the jade seal, and ruling the world? One should instead transcend Heaven and Earth and the four directions, rise beyond the Great Clarity—the Daoist realm of pure emptiness—and roam among the Nine Provinces and Mount Gushe, a legendary immortal mountain.

To come and go alone, free from restraint: this is called “being uniquely oneself.”

Note: Everyone else deliberately tries to appear different. Only he can live among people and travel with them; this is what it truly means to come and go alone. Only someone capable of this can be called “uniquely oneself.”

Only such a person is supremely honored.

Note: He is at one with all things and does not deliberately seek honor from others. Yet people naturally respect him: this is true honor. If someone clings to personal prejudices and makes being different an aim, then even if he appears outwardly the same as others, he is merely an ordinary thing in the world. Someone who rejects those who are truly “uniquely themselves,” has not attained that state, yet covets the honors of imperial carriages and crowns, claiming a title that is not rightfully his—how could people submit to him? This is not true honor.

Commentary: Everyone else deliberately tries to appear different. Only he can live among people and travel with them; this is what it means to come and go alone. To surpass what others are capable of is to be called “uniquely oneself.” The people willingly acclaim such a person, support and respect him, and honor him as their leader. This is what it means to be supreme and most honored.

The sage’s influence on the people is like a shadow following a body or an echo answering a sound.

Note: The people’s intentions are like bodies and sounds; the sage’s influence is like shadows and echoes. When the sage governs the world, he acts without deliberate effort, just as shadows and echoes arise naturally in response to bodies and sounds.

Commentary: The “great person” is the sage. He responds to all things without intention, and his responses do not come from deliberate thought. The people’s intentions are like bodies and sounds; the sage’s influence follows them like a shadow following its form or an echo answering a sound.

When someone asks, he responds, allowing everything the other person has in mind to be fully expressed.

Note: He allows the intentions of all things to unfold fully.

Commentary: The sage’s mind responds to the things that affect it, and does so in keeping with their moment, allowing their intentions to be fully expressed.

The sage is the counterpart of the people of the world.

Note: The one who asks takes the leading role; the one who responds is the counterpart.

Commentary: “Counterpart” means one that matches and responds to another. The one who first gives rise to a response takes the leading role; the one who answers is matched to them.

He abides in a state without echoes.

Note: He remains still and waits for things to arrive.

Commentary: Here, “abide” means to rest in stillness. When nothing from outside affects him, his mind is like withered wood: silent and unmoving, revealing neither shadow nor echo.

When he acts, he has no fixed direction.

Note: He changes in response to things.

Commentary: Here, “act” means to respond to the moment. Each response differs; there is no fixed direction or method.

He takes all things in hand and returns them to a state of natural change and free activity.

Note: “Rao-rao” describes spontaneous activity. Taking all things in hand and restoring their natural capacity to act is the highest state of Wuwei (non-action).

The Great Dao (the Way) moves with flexibility and has no fixed method. It changes at any moment in response to circumstances, and seeks to guide you and all living beings back to your own original nature. This is the highest state of Wuwei (non-action).

Roaming Without End

Commentary: It moves in step with the transformations of all things, and so has no beginning.

Explanation: The mind and spirit follow the course of nature and roam among all things. Thus, no trace or boundary can be identified.

Coming and Going Without Bounds

Commentary: It accords with the mysterious Great Dao and is not constrained by outward forms.

Explanation: In entering and leaving the world of dust, and in passing between life and death, one can be mysteriously at one with the transformations of creation, with no visible boundary.

Renewed Each Day, Without Beginning

Commentary: It accompanies change as it renews itself each day, and so has no starting point.

Explanation: Renewed each day, it has neither an end nor a beginning.

The Ode on the Form Being One with the Great Whole

Commentary: His appearance is no different from Heaven and Earth.

Explanation: The Ode on the Form praises the Sage’s abundant De (Virtue/Power): his body accords with Heaven and Earth, the two fundamental realities known as the “Two Modes,” and with the Great Dao. He does not look outward to peer into the cosmos, nor cling inwardly to his own body.

One with the Great Whole, Without a Self

Commentary: If even a fixation on self remains in the heart, one cannot fully accord with all things.

Explanation: In joining with Heaven and Earth and becoming one with the Dao, one can forget the distinction between self and things.

Without a Self, How Could Anything Be Fixed as Real?

Commentary: The hardest thing in the world is to forget the self. Once the self has dissolved, one no longer clings to the belief that things truly exist.

Explanation: Once one no longer clings to the self, how could external things become fixed and unchanging existences?

Those Who See Being Were the Rulers of Old

Commentary: This refers to those who are able to praise “being.”

Explanation: Those who practice benevolence, righteousness, and ritual propriety, and uphold the distinctions between ruler and subject, are still exemplary people who follow the Way of action.

Those Who See Nonbeing Are Friends of Heaven and Earth

Commentary: Those who see “nonbeing” let all things grow of themselves.

Explanation: By discerning the subtle principle of non-action and seeing the inherent, natural integrity of things, one understands that Heaven and Earth do not depend on human arrangements to exist, and that all things ultimately return to stillness and emptiness. Since one returns from “being” to “nonbeing,” one is called a friend of Heaven and Earth.

Though Lowly, Things Must Be Put to Use; Though Lowly, the People Must Be Followed

Commentary: To govern well, one should follow the nature of things and put them to use. Going against their nature and suppressing them leads to disorder. The people and all things appear lowly because those who govern do not know how to respond to them and make use of them. Thus, those who can put seemingly humble things to use are themselves noble, and those who can follow people of low status earn respect. This is a necessary principle.

Explanation: Although the people hold low positions, each has abilities of their own; although things may seem insignificant, each has its own usefulness. Do not discard the use of anything or bury anyone’s talents. Let all living beings develop in keeping with their nature.

Hidden, Yet Necessarily Acted Upon: Affairs

Commentary: The causes and conditions of an affair are concealed within the things themselves, so they are said to be hidden from view. Each thing develops according to its own circumstances, so action is necessary; the key is to respond to things and act in accordance with how circumstances unfold.

Hiddenness refers to the fact that things may be either exposed or concealed; human nature, too, has what it excels at and what it does not. Some people are open in one respect and reserved in another; some are skilled at one thing but not another. One need only follow things as they naturally are, let them be as they are, and allow each thing to find its proper place.

What is rudimentary yet cannot go unstated is the fa—the rules and teachings by which people are guided.

Note: The fa are traces left by subtle principles. How could we leave them unspoken simply because they are only rudimentary traces?

Commentary: Here, fa means teachings expressed in words. When words are used to measure principles, the principles are subtle while the words are comparatively rudimentary. It is like using a fish basket or a rabbit net as an analogy: the principle still needs to be explained.

What is distant yet must be steadfastly upheld is yi—what is fitting and right.

Note: It should be upheld. That is why, though it is distant, it must still be followed.

Commentary: Although yi is far removed from the Dao, as long as it accords with reason and human feeling, it should guide our judgments and choices.

What is close at hand yet must be extended widely is ren—the heart of care for others.

Note: If affection is directed only toward a few people, it becomes narrow. Therefore, ren must be extended widely.

Commentary: Affection easily becomes limited to those we favor. Only when care is extended to everyone, making it broad and all-embracing, does it become great ren.

What is measured yet must be built up in depth is li—the rites and forms that regulate conduct.

Note: When ritual forms are confined to a single pattern, they become flawed. They should be put into practice across all kinds of situations so that they may grow complete.

Commentary: Here, “measured” refers to the formal details of ritual. Li values propriety and balance in social exchange, but human feelings can easily become shallow. Outwardly, one needs suitable forms of approach and withdrawal; inwardly, one must cultivate depth and accumulate goodness. That is true li.

What is centered yet must be elevated is De (Virtue)—inner moral character.

Note: If one’s actions are base, then even if they seem balanced and upright, they do not count as De.

Commentary: Here, “centered” means harmonious and accommodating. Those who cultivate the Dao move through the world without ostentation, humbly adapting to all things, while keeping their aims and principles lofty. Even in a polluted environment, they remain unstained. This is De.

What is unified yet must be simple is the Dao (the Way)—the root of all things in the universe.

Note: If something is difficult, then even if it claims to be unified, it is not the Dao. How much less so when things are not unified with one another?

Commentary: The wondrous root of the Dao is unified in a single Qi (vital energy), which flows through and gives rise to all things. It is supremely simple; perhaps only the Dao is like this.

What is mysterious yet must act is Heaven—the natural workings of the cosmos.

Note: If one insists on doing nothing at all, then even what is mysterious cannot count as Heaven’s natural workings.

Commentary: Heaven’s mysterious workings cannot be fathomed. Their manifesting and concealing follow no fixed pattern; they respond to the moment without obstruction. This is what accords with nature.

Therefore, the sage observes the Way of Heaven but does not try to hasten it.

Note: The sage simply follows things as they unfold naturally.

Commentary: The sage observes nature’s subtle principles and follows the myriad things without interfering with their individual natures. What follows explains the preceding passage.

One cultivates De yet is not encumbered by it.

Note: The natural Dao accords with the highest state.

Commentary: One can bring one’s circumstances into accord with one’s understanding. Once the highest De has been cultivated, there are naturally no flaws or entanglements.

One emerges from the Dao without deliberate planning.

Note: Without deliberate planning, one becomes one with the Dao, and so can establish oneself.

A noble person gathers acts of benevolence but does not rely on them as a source of support. As the Laozi says, one gives without depending on one’s giving. Benevolence and compassion are valuable when they suit the time, so benevolence is not something to rely upon.

One looks lightly on righteousness pursued for display and does not accumulate merit in name only. Following one’s nature and avoiding deliberate contrivance means accumulating nothing. The thatched huts used by the former kings as temporary lodgings are not worth preserving; nor should one keep the straw dogs displayed after a sacrifice.

One follows ritual without being constrained by taboos. This means naturally acting in accord with ritual, not doing so out of fear of prohibitions. The deep and tranquil ground of being naturally appears in ritual conduct. How could it be bound by all manner of taboos?

When confronted with a matter, one can respond without refusing it. When something arises, one handles it according to what is reasonable: taking on what one can and moving with the circumstances when acting, without needing to defer. One moves among ordinary people and adapts with the current, coming into contact with all things as situations arise. When the moment is right, one acts, seeking nothing and refusing nothing.

One brings things into order by means of standards without throwing them into confusion. Governing ordinary affairs through the subtle Way prevents disorder. By following each thing’s own nature and regulating it with standards, one likewise avoids confusion.

One relies on the people without recklessly putting them to work. To rely on the people is to let them contribute naturally, without driving them into service lightly. The people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is firm, the state can be at peace. Therefore, the people should be the state’s support and must not be called upon recklessly.

One follows the myriad things without departing from their nature. One puts things to use in keeping with their own conditions and does not turn away from their roots. By following the people’s wishes and the nature of the myriad things, even when carrying out laws and education, one does not make them depart from their original nature.

Each thing has its own natural function, and no single function can be said to encompass everything. Yet the functions things possess by nature must not go unused. “Acting” does not mean deliberately doing something to prove what one can do; it means discerning the functions one has, and so one cannot simply cease doing everything. Once they receive life, the myriad things each have different capacities: dung beetles roll balls of dung, and spiders spin webs. These arise naturally, not through later learning. A capacity inherent in one’s nature cannot be forced; but what truly belongs to one’s nature must also be put into practice.

Without understanding the natural course of Heaven, one cannot make one’s De (Virtue) pure. Those who do not understand the principles of nature resort to deliberate contrivance; once they do so, their De is difficult to keep pure.

Without grasping the Dao, whatever one does is difficult to get right. If one cannot receive the myriad things with an open mind, one will mishandle matters at every turn. When one closes off the empty, still, mysterious nature of the Dao, every situation is like facing a wall with no way forward; naturally, it is hard to act correctly.

Not understanding the principles of the Dao is truly lamentable. If one does not understand the principles of Heaven’s Way and human affairs, and loses sight of the proper obligations between ruler and minister, one’s actions become topsy-turvy and confused. This is truly regrettable.

What is the Dao? There is the Dao of Heaven and the Dao of humanity. To occupy the honored position through Wuwei (non-action) is the Dao of Heaven.

“Wuwei” does not mean that nothing exists. It means being in a position of authority and allowing the myriad things to grow and function according to their own natures.

To take on duties, act, and grow weary is the Dao of humanity. Treating tasks as burdens comes from failing to follow each thing’s nature and let it develop on its own.

To oversee duties and manage affairs, becoming entangled in them because they are so numerous, is the way of human relations.

The ruler follows the Dao of Heaven. By aligning with it, the ruler lets the myriad things each find their proper place and naturally stands above the people. The ruler holds the upper position and appoints others to carry out tasks; this accords with the heavenly principle of Wuwei.

The ministers follow the Dao of humanity, each taking responsibility for the affairs assigned to them.

The Dao of Heaven and the Dao of humanity are far apart. The ruler takes Wuwei as the guiding principle and entrusts affairs to the officials. Each official has specific responsibilities, while the ruler does not personally intervene. Only when ruler and ministers each keep to their proper roles can they each find their proper place. The ruler is at ease while the ministers labor; their different levels of exertion cannot be compared.

This distinction must be clearly understood. Without such understanding, the roles and responsibilities of ruler and ministers will become confused. The ruler remains above and practices Wuwei; the ministers serve below and take charge of affairs. Their ranks differ, as do their exertions. Only by each keeping to their proper role can ruler and ministers each fulfill their duties appropriately. If this principle is not understood and the balance between ease and labor is wrongly arranged, disorder will arise between ruler and ministers.

Heaven and Earth, Yin and Yang (the “Two Forms”), bring forth the myriad things, and their transformations have no end. Among all forms and things, Heaven and Earth are the greatest. The myriad things are renewed at every moment and change with every thought; in truth, all are equally subject to transformation. This is what is meant by “settling and nurturing them”—bringing the myriad things to stability, growth, and flourishing.