《山海經》Vol. 1

The first volume of the Classic of Mountains and Seas records the exotic flora and fauna of the southern mountain ranges. The opening section describes Mount Zhaoyao, located at the southern end of the Fushan range in Shu territory, near the Western Sea. This mountain abounds with cassia trees (their leaves resembling loquat leaves, about two chi long, evergreen in winter) and yields abundant metal ores and jade. A bluish herb called "Zhuyu" (also known as "guicha") grows here, resembling chives—consuming it alleviates hunger. There's also a paper mulberry tree with black markings whose radiant blossoms are called "Migu"—carrying its branches prevents one from losing their way.

The mountain is inhabited by a strange creature called the "Xingxing," resembling an ape with white ears. It normally walks on all fours but can also run upright. Legend claims consuming its flesh enhances running ability. The Lijiu River originates here, flowing westward into the sea. Its waters produce a mysterious treasure called "Yupei" (of unspecified form) that, when worn, prevents abdominal masses and blockages.

Three hundred li east lies Mount Tangting (also called Changting), where yan trees bear fruit resembling red apples. White apes with mournful cries dwell here, and the mountain yields crystal (called "water jade" by the ancients) and gold. Further east, 380 li away, Mount Yuanyi hosts numerous rare birds and extraordinary beasts with peculiar forms.

(Note: The term "yu" refers to a red-eyed, long-tailed ape; "jiaji" denotes abdominal mass disorders; "water jade" is crystal, which ancient alchemists believed could confer immortality when ingested.)

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records several mystical mountains and their extraordinary creatures:

Mount Zhuyang (pronounced similarly to "zu") lies 370 li to the east. Its southern slopes yield abundant red metal (copper ore), while the northern side produces white metal (silver ore). Here dwells the marvelous beast called Lushu, which resembles a horse with a white head, tiger-like stripes, a red tail, and a cry like human singing. Legend says wearing its fur ensures prosperous descendants. The strange waters originating here flow east into the Xianyi River, inhabited by dark-shelled Xuan turtles with bird heads and snake tails - their calls resemble wood splitting, and wearing their shells supposedly cures deafness.

Three hundred li further east stands Mount Di, where expansive waters flow though no plants grow. This mountain harbors the peculiar Lu fish (pronounced "liu"), shaped like an ox yet dwelling on land, with a snake-like tail, wings beneath its ribs, and a cry resembling the mythical Liuniu beast. Remarkably, these fish enter winter dormancy and revive in summer - consuming them allegedly prevents abscesses.

Another four hundred li east rises the sheer cliffs of Mount Chanyuan ("chan" pronounced like "cicada"), nearly impossible to climb. Here lives the Lei creature, resembling a wildcat with long mane, possessing both male and female characteristics - eating its flesh is said to dispel jealousy.

(Note: The term "wearing" refers to using animal pelts or shells as talismans; "winter death and summer revival" describes hibernation-like phenomena; "possessing both female and male" indicates hermaphroditism. These records reflect ancient interpretations of natural phenomena through mythological lenses.)

Three hundred li to the east stands Mount Ji. Its southern slopes abound in jade, while the northern side grows many strangely shaped trees. There dwells a peculiar beast resembling a sheep but with nine tails, four ears, and eyes on its back, called the Boyi (pronounced "Bo Shi"). Wearing its fur dispels fear. Another odd creature is a bird resembling a chicken but with three heads, six eyes, six legs, and three pairs of wings, named the Jixingshangfu (pronounced "Ji Xing Shang Fu"). Eating its flesh prevents the need for sleep.

Another three li east lies Mount Qingqiu (there is also a Qingqiu Kingdom overseas). Its southern slopes are rich in jade, while the northern side produces dark green minerals. Here resides the nine-tailed fox, whose cry sounds like a wailing infant. Though it preys on humans, consuming its meat wards off evil influences. There is also a bird called the Guanguan, resembling a turtledove, whose call mimics human speech. Wearing its feathers maintains mental clarity. The Ying River originates here, flowing south into the Jize Marsh, where dwells the Chiru—a fish with a human face whose voice resembles mandarin ducks. Eating its flesh prevents skin diseases.

Continuing 350 li east brings one to Mount Jiwei, whose tail extends to the shores of the Eastern Sea, abundant in sand and stone. The Fang River (pronounced "Fang") flows from here south into the Yu River (pronounced "Yu"), teeming with white jade. From Mount Zhaoyao to Mount Jiwei, there are ten mountains spanning 2,950 li. The mountain deities here all have avian bodies and dragon heads. For sacrifices, one must use unblemished livestock, bury a half-circular jade tablet (zhang), and offer refined rice.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas describes a series of southern mountains and their peculiar creatures:

Mount Ju (pronounced "jǔ") marks the beginning of the second southern mountain range. To its west lies the Land of Flowing Yellow, while to the north one can see Mount Zhupi, and to the east Mount Changyou. The Ying River originates here, flowing southwest into the Red River, its waters abundant with white jade and cinnabar grains fine as millet. The mountain harbors a strange beast called Lilì, resembling a piglet but with chicken claws, whose barking sounds like a dog—its appearance heralds large-scale construction projects. There's also an odd bird named Zhū, owl-like but with human-like claws and a peculiar cry—its presence foretells exiles.

Four hundred fifty li southeast stands Mount Changyou, barren of vegetation yet prone to floods. Here dwells the four-eared Changyou monkey, whose moaning resembles human groans—its emergence signals catastrophic flooding.

Three hundred forty li further east lies Mount Yaoguang, its southern slopes rich in jade and northern slopes abundant in metal ores. The mountain is home to Huáihuái (pronounced "huá huái"), a half-human, half-pig creature dwelling in caves and hibernating—its wood-chopping-like cry precedes large-scale forced labor or social upheaval.

Another three hundred fifty li east brings us to legendary Mount Yu (note: traditionally associated with Gun's execution, though geographically inconsistent), its base watery, summit rainy, devoid of plants but teeming with venomous snakes.

Finally, three hundred seventy li east stands Mount Qúfù (pronounced "qú"), utterly barren yet containing abundant metal and jade deposits.

Note: The "glutinous rice" mentioned refers to refined ceremonial rice used in ancient sacrifices, while "white sedge mats" denote woven cogon grass offerings—both standard ritual items. These mythical creatures' appearances were interpreted as omens of natural disasters or social unrest, reflecting the ancient concept of "cosmic resonance" between heaven and humanity.

Four hundred li further east lies Ju County Mountain (located between present-day Yuyao south and Gouzhang north in Zhejiang, from which both places derive their names, as recorded in Zhang's Geography Annals). This barren mountain bears no vegetation but contains abundant deposits of gold and jade.

Proceeding eastward another five hundred li brings one to Floating Jade Mountain (in the Lake Tai region). To its north lies Lake Juqu (ancient name for Lake Tai, also called Zhenze Marsh), while to the east one can see the Zhupi River. The mountain is home to a peculiar beast resembling a tiger with an ox's tail that barks like a dog, called "Zhi"—a man-eating creature. The Tiao River flows northward from the mountain into Lake Tai, its waters teeming with ci fish (knife-shaped fish with large heads measuring over a foot long, still abundant in Lake Tai where they're commonly called knife fish).

Another five hundred li east stands Cheng Mountain, whose square shape resembles a three-tiered altar built by human hands ("cheng" implying layered structure). Its slopes yield rich deposits of gold and jade, while the foothills contain abundant dark greenish-black ores. The Zhuo River originates here, flowing south into the Hushuo River (with "hu" pronounced like "hu" in "hush"), whose sandy bed contains plentiful gold particles (similar to the gold sands of Yongchang Prefecture—ancient texts record gold being found in clear waters).

Five hundred li further east lies Kuaiji Mountain (south of present-day Shaoxing, within Shanyin County, site of Yu the Great's mausoleum and Yu's Well). The mountain abounds in gold and jade, while its base yields plentiful fu stones (colorful jade-like stones, the most famous being the red-with-white-veined variety from Linxiang, Changsha). The Shao River originates here, flowing south into the Ju River (pronounced like "ju" in "jungle").

Eastward another five hundred li brings one to desolate Yi Mountain—completely barren with only sand and stones. The Ju River (alternatively called Lietu River) originates here flowing south.

Five hundred li further east stands Pugou Mountain (also called Sunset Mountain), its summit rich in gold and jade while its lush foothills show no traces of birds, beasts, or water sources.

Another five hundred li east lies Xianyin Mountain—similarly barren and waterless. The final four hundred li journey reaches Xun Mountain (also called Xun Mountain), where the southern slopes contain abundant gold deposits while the northern slopes....

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records the geography and marvelous creatures of the southern mountain ranges. On Jade Mountain dwells a strange beast called "Huan" that resembles a goat but has no mouth and is naturally immortal. The Xun River originates here, flowing south into the E Marsh where purple snails abound.

Four hundred li east stands Hushao Mountain, its slopes covered with catalpa and nanmu trees while thorny shrubs and wolfberry bushes thrive below. The Pang River emerges here, coursing eastward into the sea. Another five hundred li east lies Quwu Mountain—a barren expanse of sand and stones where the Deer River flows south to join the Pang.

Continuing five hundred li east brings one to Luwu Mountain, equally devoid of vegetation but rich in metal ores. The Zegeng River runs south into the Pang, inhabited by the man-eating "Gudiao" monsters that resemble horned eagles and cry like wailing infants.

The easternmost Qiwu Mountain borders the sea, bearing only the stone slabs used for board games but no jade. From its summit, one can observe mysterious lights flickering among distant hills—the path where the sun traverses.

This second southern mountain system spans seventeen peaks from Jushan to Qiwu, stretching seven thousand two hundred li. The mountain deities here all have dragon bodies with bird heads, worshipped with buried jade discs and rice offerings.

The third southern range begins at Tianyu Mountain, surrounded by impassable waters. Five hundred li east stands Daoguo Mountain, abundant in metals and jade, where rhinoceroses and si (blue bovine-like beasts weighing three thousand jin) roam below. The three-horned rhinoceros bears its smallest horn above the nostrils, often frothing blood from its mouth.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records several sacred mountains and their marvelous creatures:

At Elephant Mountain (named for its giant elephants—massive creatures with thick trunks and tusks measuring ten feet long, known for their jealous temperament and refusal to mate with other animals) dwells a strange bird resembling a small wild duck with legs near its tail, a white head, and three feet (some records say three hands), bearing a human face. Named Qu Ru, its cry sounds like its own name. The Yin River originates here, flowing south into the sea, where a creature called Tiger Dragonfish resides—a fish with a serpent's tail whose call resembles mandarin ducks; consuming its flesh cures hemorrhoids and reduces swelling.

Five hundred li east lies Danxue Mountain, rich in gold and jade. The Dan River flows from here south into Bohai Bay. Here lives the phoenix, which resembles a chicken with multicolored plumage: the head patterns symbolize De (Virtue), wing patterns represent righteousness, back patterns signify propriety, breast patterns embody benevolence, and belly patterns denote faithfulness. This bird feeds naturally, sings and dances gracefully, and its appearance heralds universal peace (Han Dynasty records document multiple phoenix sightings). Standing five to six feet tall with radiant feathers, Zhuangzi's description differs slightly—the Guangya records its head resembles a chicken, chin like a goose, neck like a snake, back like a turtle, and tail like a fish, with females called "huang" and males "feng."

Another five hundred li east is Fashuang Mountain, barren of plants but water-rich, inhabited by white apes. The Fan River originates here, flowing south to Bohai.

Four hundred li further east lies the edge of Mao Mountain, whose southern valley—named Yuyi (or "Sui" in some versions)—hosts various strange birds (the Guangya mentions the Peng, Yuanju, and Que birds among them). This is also the source of the south wind.

Four hundred li east stands the base of Fei Mountain, abundant in gold and jade but waterless, with venomous snakes infesting its foothills.

Five hundred li onward lies Yangjia Mountain, similarly devoid of vegetation but water-rich.

Another five hundred li east brings one to Guanxiang Mountain (also called Lake Archer Mountain in some texts), densely forested but grassless, teeming with strange birds yet devoid of beasts.

Finally, five hundred li east stands Chicken Mountain, its peaks rich in gold and foothills yielding abundant red mineral pigments (danhuo).

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records the geographical features and extraordinary creatures of the southern mountain ranges. The Black Water River originates from these mountains, flowing southward into the sea. In its waters dwells a strange fish called the zhuan fish, which resembles a crucian carp but has bristles like a pig and makes sounds like a piglet. Its appearance heralds great drought across the land.

Four hundred li to the east stands Mount Lingqiu, where no grass grows but flames often appear. To the south of the mountain lies the Zhonggu Valley, from which the northeast wind (tiaofeng) blows. Here resides a peculiar bird resembling an owl but with a human face, four eyes, and ears. Known as the yu bird, its cry echoes its own name, and its presence also foretells drought.

Another three hundred and seventy li eastward lies Mount Lunzhe, rich in gold, jade, and precious stones. At its base, one finds abundant qinghuo ore. A unique white gao tree grows here, with red trunks and sap as black as lacquer yet sweet as syrup. Consuming it relieves hunger and fatigue, and the sap can also be used to polish and enhance the luster of jade.

Five hundred and eighty li further east is Mount Yugao, home to many monstrous beasts and giant serpents. Another five hundred and eighty li eastward stands Mount Nanyu, abundant in gold and jade, with numerous waterways at its base. Here lies a peculiar cave: water flows in during spring, out during summer, and seals shut in winter. The Zuo River originates here, running southeast into the sea, where divine birds like the phoenix dwell.

The entire Southern Third Classic chronicles fourteen mountains, stretching from Mount Tianyu to Mount Nanyu, spanning six thousand five hundred and thirty li. The mountain deities of this range all possess dragon bodies and human faces. In rituals, they are offered white dogs, along with refined millet (xu) and glutinous rice (tu).

The concluding verse praises the southern cassia tree: thriving in the south, lush and flourishing, blooming defiantly in frost, its medicinal virtues unparalleled. Also mentioned is the miraculous migu tree, whose radiance illuminates the heavens. These accounts reflect the ancient imagination of the mystical and magnificent landscapes of the south.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records many marvelous creatures and phenomena:

There is a creature called the xingxing (resembling an ape) that can walk upright like humans, excels at climbing trees, and though not particularly strong, is extremely agile with bright eyes and remarkable running speed. Legend says consuming its flesh grants swifter movement.

Water jade (crystal) grows in deep pools. The immortal Chisongzi, after ingesting it, could ride clouds and mist, inhale and exhale the Qi of heaven and earth, and travel freely through the nine celestial layers.

White apes possess extraordinary dexterity—even Yang Youji, the legendary archer of the Chu state during the Spring and Autumn period, couldn’t hit them. They foresee danger and emit warning cries, their spiritual awareness cycling endlessly in profound mystery.

The lushu beast has the body of a horse and the stripes of a tiger. When it raises its head and neighs, its voice resounds powerfully, and it outruns entire herds when galloping. Wearing its fur ensures prosperous descendants.

The lu fish resembles an ox but has bird-like wings and a serpent’s tail. It appears and disappears at will, seemingly capable of controlling life and death.

The lei creature embodies both male and female traits, reproducing without external aid. Gentle by nature, it never feels jealousy.

The bo’yi looks like a goat but has eyes on its back—a bizarre sight at first, though familiarity dispels the strangeness. Carrying its fur dispels fear.

The zhutu plant is a marvel—eating it banishes hunger. The xuan turtle has a bird’s head and a snake’s tail. The zhiyu fish sports six legs and three pairs of wings, both capable of flight.

The guanguan bird’s cry sounds like a human scolding. Resembling a turtledove, wearing its feathers grants discernment between right and wrong. It hails from Mount Qingqiu. The chiru has a fish’s body and a human head.

When comets streak across the sky and whales perish in the waves, the zhu bird cries in cities, foretelling the exile of virtuous individuals.

The huahuai beast appears only when forced labor arises, emerging solely in times of political chaos. During peace, it remains hidden.

The changyou has four ears and resembles a monkey—an omen of floods, as its appearance heralds deluges. Another creature has a tiger’s body and an ox’s tail.

Yu the Great once summoned his ministers to Mount Kuaiji. When the giant Fangfengshi showed disrespect, Yu executed him, recording achievements on jade tablets and engraving warnings on black steles for posterity.

The huan beast lacks a mouth, making it impervious to evil influences—a trait perfectly aligned with the natural Dao.

The rhinoceros has a pig-like head, an ox-like body, and three-branched horns, with body parts that can interchange positions.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records several marvelous creatures and phenomena:

There exists a fierce beast called the "si" (兕) that resembles an ox, with a dark blue-black hide of such strength it can topple anything. Upon death, it spontaneously combusts, leaving behind an extraordinarily tough hide used for crafting armor (military equipment), while its horns symbolize civil virtue (De).

The "xiang" (象, elephant) possesses a massive, imposing frame with peculiar features—a single elephant yields meat equivalent to ten oxen. Its eyes are smaller than a pig's, its head sways like a tail, and when moving, it appears as if a small mountain were shifting.

The "zuan diao" (纂雕) is a horned bird whose cry resembles an infant's wail; the "qu ru" (瞿如) has three claws and resembles a jiao bird; while the "hu jiao" (虎蛟) is a monstrous fish with a serpent's tail.

The phoenix (凤凰), sovereign of all birds, bears eight auspicious markings on its plumage and embodies the Five Constant Virtues (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity). When it spreads its wings in flight, it heralds the advent of a sage ruler.

In the "Yu Sui Valley" (育隧谷), gentle southern breezes blow. After spring, the climate turns intensely hot, with scorching winds capable of dispelling stagnant dampness.

The "yong bird" (顒鸟) dwells in forests, while the "zhuan fish" (鱄鱼) inhabits deep pools. Their appearance foretells great drought—a calamity that may spread across the realm. These omens defy prediction, their mysteries profound.

The "white jiu plant" (白䓘) exudes a syrup-like sap of exquisite sweetness. Consuming it alleviates hunger, its lingering flavor delightful. Legend holds that prolonged ingestion erases fatigue and prolongs life.