《山海經》Vol. 2

The "Western Mountains Classic" section primarily documents the geographical features and extraordinary creatures of the Huashan mountain range. The first mountain in this range is called Qianlai Mountain, covered with pine trees on its slopes, while its foothills contain special stones known as "washing stones" (used for scrubbing the body to remove impurities). Here dwells an animal called the qianyang, which resembles a sheep but has a horse's tail (similar to the donkey-sized sheep found in modern-day Da Yuezhi territory), its fat being effective for treating chapped skin.

Forty-five li westward lies Songguo Mountain, where the Huo River originates, flowing north into the Wei River. The mountain is rich in copper deposits. A bird called tongqu resides here, resembling a pheasant with black plumage and red feet, capable of curing skin ulcers.

Another sixty li west stands the famous Taihua Mountain (also known as Western Peak Huashan), with sheer cliffs forming a square shape, towering fifty thousand ren (approximately forty thousand feet) high and spanning ten li wide. The mountain is inhabited by the Star-Jade Maiden who holds jade nectar (legend states consuming this nectar leads to immortality), yet its perilous paths deter even birds and beasts from nesting. Here lurks a strange serpent called feiwei, possessing six feet and four wings—its appearance heralds great droughts (it once emerged during King Tang's reign at Yangshan).

Continuing eighty li westward is Xiaohua Mountain (also called Shaohua Mountain), where thorny bushes and wolfberry plants dominate, with zuoniu (modern-day thousand-jin mountain oxen found in Huayin) being the primary beasts. The northern slopes produce abundant qing stones (used for musical instruments), while the southern slopes yield plentiful tufu jade (a special type of jade). Most birds here are chibi (a pheasant species with crimson breast, golden crest, and yellow back).

Eighty li west of Fuyu Mountain (a legendary sacred mountain) lies another Fuyu Mountain. Its southern slopes are rich in copper deposits, while the northern side abounds in iron ore. The mountain grows a peculiar tree called "Wenjing," whose fruits resemble dates and can cure deafness. Most herbs here look like mallows, bearing red flowers and yellow fruits shaped like infant tongues - consuming them keeps people alert. The Fuyu River originates here, flowing north into the Wei River. The dominant mountain beasts are "Conglong" (ram-like creatures with red manes), while the prevalent birds are "Min" (kingfisher-like birds with red beaks) - keeping these birds wards off fire disasters.

Sixty li further west stands Shicui Mountain, covered with towering palm trees (with trunks reaching three zhang high, large round leaves, and bark suitable for rope-making). Its herbs resemble chives with white flowers and black fruits that cure scabies. The southern slopes produce "Tufu jade" (a prized jade variety), while the northern side contains abundant copper deposits. The Guan River originates here, flowing north into Yu River - its riverbed contains red clay that, when applied to livestock, prevents diseases (similar to the custom of painting ox horns with cinnabar).

Continuing seventy li westward brings one to Ying Mountain, densely forested with Niu and Jiang trees (Niu trees resemble cherry trees but with finer leaves). The northern slopes hold iron deposits, while the southern side abounds in gold. The Yu River begins here, flowing north into Zhao River, where one finds "Xian fish" (turtle-like creatures that bleat like sheep). The southern slopes also produce abundant arrow bamboo (thick-walled bamboo similar to varieties from Hanzhong).

These records reflect ancient people's natural understanding that connected minerals, flora and fauna characteristics with medicinal and protective functions. Many described biological traits likely originated from contemporary folk legends.

The passage describes the geographical features of several mountains and the flora and fauna found there.

Mount Zhu is covered with towering trees, and its northern slopes are rich in iron ore. A plant called huangguang grows here, resembling the tree of heaven (Ailanthus) with leaves like hemp and white flowers that bear red fruit, colored like ochre. Bathing with this plant can treat scabies and reduce swelling. The Zhushui River originates from this mountain, flowing north into the Wei River. The southern slopes are abundant with slender bamboo and produce fine green jade. The Danshui River also begins here, running southeast into the Luo River, its waters teeming with crystal and giant salamanders (a type of four-legged fish). A peculiar beast called haozhi (a porcupine) dwells here—resembling a small pig with white fur as thick as hairpins, tipped with black. Its back is covered in long quills that it can shoot as a defense mechanism.

One hundred twenty li to the west lies Mount Fu, where panmu trees grow, their leaves resembling those of the trifoliate orange but without thorns, harboring insects within. A fragrant herb called xuncao thrives here, with square stems, hemp-like leaves, red flowers, and black fruit. Its scent resembles that of the miwu herb, and wearing it is said to ward off epidemics.

Seventy li further west is Mount Yuci, from which the Qishui River flows north into the Wei River. The mountain is densely forested with yu and jiang trees, while its lower slopes are covered in slender bamboo. The northern side contains deposits of red copper ore, and the southern side yields a precious jade known as yingyuan.

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing) records several mountains and their extraordinary creatures. First described is a beast called "Xiao," resembling an ape but with exceptionally long arms, skilled at throwing objects (ancient people likened it to a macaque that could hurl things). There is also a strange bird named "Tuofei," shaped like an owl with a human face and only one leg. This bird appears in winter and hibernates in summer. Legend says wearing its feathers makes one fearless of thunder.

A hundred and fifty li to the west lies Shi Mountain, devoid of vegetation. The Zhu River originates here, flowing north into the Wei River, its waters abundant with crystal. Another hundred and seventy li westward stands Nan Mountain, rich in cinnabar deposits. The Dan River begins here, flowing north into the Wei River. The area's beasts are mostly "Mengbao" (a bear-like creature, smaller in size with lustrous, light-colored fur, said to devour snakes and even copper/iron, native to Shu region), while the birds are predominantly cuckoo-like "Shijiu."

Continuing west another hundred and eighty li brings us to Dashi Mountain, where paper mulberry and oak trees thrive on its slopes, with hackberry and evergreen oak below. Silver is found on the northern side, while white jade comes from the south. The Cen River flows north from here into the Wei, while another clear stream runs south into the Han River.

Three hundred and twenty li further west lies Bozhong Mountain, source of the Han River which flows southeast into the Mian River, and the Xiao River which runs north into the Tang River. The mountain abounds with peach-branch bamboo and hooked-tip bamboo. Its beasts are mostly rhinoceroses, wild oxen, bears, and "pi" (a yellowish-white bear of great strength that can climb trees), while birds are primarily white pheasants and crimson tragopans. A peculiar herb called "Gurong" grows here—its leaves resemble orchid grass, roots resemble platycodon, with black flowers that bear no fruit. Tradition warns that consuming this plant causes sterility.

Three hundred and fifty li to the west lies Mount Tiandi. The mountain is covered with palm trees and nanmu wood, while its foothills abound with jianmao grass (a plant resembling cogongrass) and fragrant orchids. Among its creatures dwells a beast resembling a dog, named Xibian (some texts call it "Guyi"). Using its pelt as a sitting mat protects against gu poison. There's also a bird resembling a quail, with black-patterned feathers and crimson neck plumage ("weng" refers to the feathers beneath its neck), called the Li bird. Eating it cures hemorrhoids. Another plant grows here, shaped like mallow with the fragrance of ligusticum, named Duheng (a fragrant herb). Wearing it makes horses run swiftly (some say horses gain speed by eating it), while humans who consume it are cured of goiter.

Three hundred and eighty li southwest stands Mount Gaotu. The Qiang River originates here, flowing west into the Zhuzi River, while the Tu River runs south to join the Jihuo River. The mountain's southern slopes yield abundant cinnabar, while the northern side is rich in silver and gold. Cassia trees flourish on its slopes. A white stone called yushi (now known as arsenic ore, lethal to rodents) can poison rats (silkworms grow fat from eating it). An herb resembling fragrant galangal, with mallow-like leaves that are red underneath, grows here named Wutiao—also poisonous to mice. Among its beasts lives a deer-like creature with a white tail, horse-like legs and human-like forelimbs (front feet resembling hands), bearing four horns, called Ruru. Another bird resembles an owl but has human feet, named Shusi—eating it cures goiter (some texts claim it treats epilepsy).

One hundred eighty li further west lies Mount Huang (possibly near modern Xingping in Shaanxi, where Han dynasty palaces stood—though this may not be the same location), barren of ordinary vegetation but rich in arrow bamboo. The Pan River originates here, flowing west into the Chi River, its waters yielding abundant jade. A bovine-like beast with bluish-black fur and large eyes dwells here, named Min. Another owl-like bird appears with azure plumage and crimson beak, possessing a human-like tongue capable of speech—the Ying□ (parrot, with a childlike tongue and forward-facing toes).

Two hundred li west of Cuishan lies another mountain of the same name, covered with palm trees and nanmu wood at its summit while bamboo forests blanket its foothills. The southern slopes yield abundant gold and jade, whereas the northern slopes are home to numerous yaks and musk deer (resembling small river deer that secrete musk). The predominant birds here are leiniao, magpie-like creatures with crimson-black plumage, two heads and four legs, reputed to ward off fire hazards.

Another 250 li westward stands Weishan (pronounced similarly to "wei" or "kui"), marking the western boundary of the Western Sea. This barren mountain contains no vegetation but harbors vast jade deposits. The Qi River originates here, flowing westward into the ocean while producing colorful minerals and gold (including orpiment, azurite, and green jasper), along with numerous cinnabar particles resembling millet grains.

The first section of the Classic of Western Mountains spans nineteen peaks from Qianlai Mountain to Weishan, extending 2,957 li. Mount Hua serves as the principal sacred mountain (zhong denoting abodes of deities). Its rituals require the grand sacrifice of tai lao (a complete set of ox, sheep, and pig offerings). For worshiping the mountain deity of Yushan, practitioners must maintain sacred fires through a hundred-day purification (zhaijiao), offering one hundred unblemished livestock (xi referring to pure-colored animals), interring one hundred jade pieces (yu denoting superior jade), warming one hundred vessels of wine, and encircling the altar with one hundred ceremonial gui and bi jades (ying indicating ritual arrangement; some scholars interpret this as ancient wine containers).

The remaining seventeen mountains observe simpler ceremonies requiring only intact sheep sacrifices (quan denoting unblemished offerings), with ritual fires kindled from hundred-herb ashes. The ceremonial mats must be woven from white cogongrass, edged with five-colored patterns (chun referring to chromatic border designs following Five Phase sequences). The second Western Mountains Classic begins at Qianshan (pronounced similarly to "qian," alternatively recorded as "leng" or "tu").

These passages from the Classic of Mountains and Seas primarily describe the distribution of natural resources and geographical features of several western mountains.

Two hundred li west of Mount Taimao (also called Mount Qinmao), the southern slopes are rich in metal ores, while the northern slopes abound in iron. The River Yu originates here, flowing eastward into the Yellow River. Its waters contain patterned algae jade (a type of fine jade) and numerous white water snakes.

Another 170 li westward lies Mount Shuli, where gold is plentiful on the mountain, and silver ores are abundant below. The dominant trees here are the niu and jiang (two types of hardwoods), and the birds are primarily parrots. The River Chu originates here, flowing south into the Wei River, and its waters yield many white pearls (ancient Shu Prefecture’s Pingze region also produced blue pearls).

150 li further west is Mount Gaoshan, rich in silver on its slopes and blue-green jade (a type of jasper, historically found in the eastern mountains of Yuexi’s Kuaiji County) below. It also produces realgar (a mineral medicine; during the Jin dynasty, a landslide in Gaoping Commandery once uncovered several thousand jin of it). The trees are mostly palms, and the grasses are primarily bamboo. The Jing River (modern Jing River) originates here, flowing east into the Wei River, and its waters contain abundant qing stones (used in ancient times to make chimes) and blue-green jade.

300 li southwest is Mount Nüchuang, where the southern slopes are rich in red copper ore, and the northern slopes yield alum stone (called nie stone in Chu and yu nie in Qin). The mountain is home to fierce beasts such as tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, and si (an ancient rhinoceros-like creature). There is also a five-colored bird resembling a long-tailed pheasant (di bird), called the luan bird, whose appearance heralds peace in the world (legend says the Western Rong once presented this auspicious bird during King Cheng of Zhou’s reign).

Another 200 li west is Mount Longshou, where gold is abundant on the southern side and iron ore on the northern. The River Shao originates here, flowing southeast into the Jing River, and its waters are rich in fine jade.

Continuing 200 li westward is Mount Lutai (located in the modern Shangjun region), where white jade is plentiful on the mountain.

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing) records the products and marvelous creatures of a series of western mountains:

At the foot of the mountain, silver is abundant, and the common beasts are zuo cattle and long-haired goats. There is a strange bird resembling a rooster but with a human face, called the "fuxi." Its cry is its own name, and its appearance foretells the outbreak of war.

Two hundred li to the southwest lies Mount Niaowei, where the southern slopes are rich in qing stones, while the northern slopes abound in sandalwood and paper mulberry trees. A plant called "nüchuang" (its exact nature is unclear) also grows here. The Niaowei River originates from this mountain and flows westward into the Red River, its waters filled with fine red sand.

Four hundred li further west is Mount Xiaoci, where white jade is plentiful on the mountain and red copper at its base. A strange beast resembling an ape, with a white head and red feet, is called the "zhuyan." Its appearance heralds large-scale warfare.

Another three hundred li westward stands Mount Daci, where the southern slopes are rich in chalk and the northern slopes in green jade. The dominant beasts here are zuo cattle and antelopes.

Four hundred li further west lies Mount Xunwu, barren of vegetation but rich in gold and jade. Adjacent to it is Mount Diyang, densely forested with thorny millet trees, nanmu, and evergreen yuzhang trees. The fierce beasts here include rhinoceroses, tigers, leopards, and zuo cattle.

Mount Zhongshou is abundant in tufu jade, while its foothills are rich in sandalwood, paper mulberry trees, and gold, inhabited by numerous rhinoceroses. Mount Huangren contains plentiful gold, jade, and orpiment. The Huang River flows westward into the Red River, its waters filled with cinnabar.

Mount Zhonghuang is rich in gold, with its foothills covered in fragrant orchids and pear trees. The westernmost Mount Xihuang yields gold in the south and iron in the north, its beasts primarily consisting of elk and zuo cattle. Finally, Mount Lai is dense with sandalwood and paper mulberry trees, hosting a great variety of birds.

The descriptions of mythical creatures like the zuo cattle and zhuyan, along with omens such as "its appearance foretells war," reflect the ancient worldview that blended geographical knowledge with shamanistic divination. The unique jade, metals, flora, and fauna of each mountain form a mythic geographical system that intertwines reality and imagination.

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas describes the extraordinary landscapes of the western mountain ranges. Among the seventeen mountains stretching from Qian Mountain to Lai Mountain dwell two types of peculiar deities: ten spirits with human faces and equine bodies, and seven spirits with human faces, bovine bodies, four legs yet only one arm (these staff-walking deities are called "Flying Beast Spirits"). Their worship requires sheep and swine as sacrificial offerings (termed "Shao Lao" or Lesser Sacrifice) placed upon white cogon grass mats; the other ten deities receive multicolored roosters as offerings without grain tributes.

The third western mountain range begins at Chongwu Mountain, where one can view Zhongsu Mountain to the north, the distant Yao Marsh to the south, the hunting grounds of the Yellow Emperor to the west, and the Yan Abyss to the east. Here grows a tree with round leaves and white calyxes, bearing crimson flowers with black veins and bitter orange-like fruits that benefit descendants. Two marvelous creatures inhabit these slopes: one resembling a macaque with leopard-patterned forelimbs (called "Ju Fu," associated with the legendary Kuafu); the other being the "Manman" paired-winged birds (azure and scarlet creatures that must coordinate to fly), whose appearance foretells great floods.

Three hundred li northwest stands Changsha Mountain, where the Ci River originates and flows north into the inky You River. This barren land produces abundant realgar ore. Another three hundred seventy li northwest lies the famed Mount Buzhou (named for its broken silhouette), offering views of Zhupi Mountain and Yuechong Mountain to the north, and the You Marsh to the east—the subterranean source of the Yellow River where torrential waters surge violently.

(Note: Special terms like "Shao Lao" and "Manman" are preserved, while sacrificial customs and creature features receive vernacular explanations with supplemental geographical context.)

This passage describes the geographical features and marvelous products of ancient China's northwestern regions. In the Hexi region, the source of the Yellow River flows underground from the Kunlun Mountains, passing through the Congling (Pamir Plateau) and the kingdom of Yutian (modern-day Hotan, Xinjiang), then divides and reunites before flowing east into Youze (Lop Nur). This lake spans three to four hundred li, maintains constant water levels throughout the seasons, and lies three hundred li from the Yumen Pass—serving as the Yellow River's hidden resurgent source.

A rare fruit tree grows in this area, bearing peach-like fruits with jujube-like leaves, yellow flowers, and red berries. Consuming its fruit relieves fatigue. Four hundred twenty li to the northwest lies Mìshān (Mount Mi), covered with danmu (cinnabar trees)—plants with round leaves, red stems, yellow blossoms, and sweet red fruits that sate hunger when eaten. The Danshui (Cinnabar River) flows westward from the mountain into Jize (the legendary bathing pool of the agricultural deity Houji), where abundant white jade emerges amid boiling, churning jade cream (yugao). The Yellow Emperor attained immortality by consuming this jade cream.

Black jade (xuan yu) also forms within the jade cream. When used to irrigate the danmu, after five years, the trees develop a five-colored radiance and emit a fragrant aroma. The Yellow Emperor gathered the jade essence (yuhua) from Mount Mi and sowed it south of Zhongshan, cultivating the finest jade, jinyu. This jade is dense and hard as millet, lustrous and smooth, emitting a radiant interplay of five-colored lights.

(Note: The "jade cream" mentioned here is a significant concept in Daoist cultivation culture, believed to possess miraculous properties. The legend of the "Yellow Emperor consuming jade to attain immortality" reflects ancient xian (immortal) cultivation beliefs. "Jize" is associated with the agricultural deity Houji.)

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records several sacred mountains and their extraordinary creatures. Regarding jade, it describes: red jade as vibrant as a rooster’s comb, yellow jade resembling steamed millet, white jade like sliced fat, and black jade akin to rich lacquer—all these hues are the natural patterns of fine jade. Jade harmonizes the energies of hardness and softness (referring to its gentle, polished nature) and embodies the nine virtues (benevolence, wisdom, righteousness, etc.). It served as a crucial offering in rituals to heaven, earth, and spirits (ancient people believed jade could connect with the cosmos and commune with deities). A nobleman wearing jade could ward off misfortune, much like foreigners wearing diamonds to dispel evil influences.

From the Mi Mountain to Zhong Mountain stretches 460 li, a land dotted with marshes teeming with strange singing birds, bizarre beasts, and peculiar fish—all rare creatures. Another 420 li northwest lies Zhong Mountain, where the mountain deity, named Gu (recorded in the ancient divination text Guicang), has a human face and a dragon’s body. Gu once joined a deity called Qinpei (pronounced like "Pi") in killing Baogiang (or Zugiang) south of Kunlun Mountain. As punishment, the Heavenly Emperor transformed them—Qinpei became a giant eagle (Da'e) with black stripes, a white head, a red beak, and tiger claws, its cry resembling a wild duck’s; its appearance heralded war. Gu, meanwhile, turned into a Jun bird, resembling an owl with red feet, a straight beak, yellow markings, and a white head. Its cry sounded like a swan’s, and its presence brought severe drought.

The Chronicle of King Mu of Zhou recounts how King Mu ascended Zhong Mountain, praising it as the world’s highest peak, where beasts gathered and birds nested. Sacred creatures like red leopards, white tigers, white birds, and blue eagles preyed on dogs, sheep, pigs, and deer. After five days of exploration, King Mu left an inscribed stone at the Hanging Garden (a legendary paradise). Another 180 li west stands Taiqi Mountain, where the Guan River originates and flows westward.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records a peculiar fish called the Wen□ fish (pronounced "Yao"), which resembles a carp but possesses bird-like wings. Its body bears blue patterns, with a white head and red mouth. This fish often flies at night, traveling between the Western and Eastern Seas. Its cry resembles that of the Luan bird (a mythical divine bird), and its flesh tastes both sweet and sour. Consuming it is said to cure madness. Its appearance heralds an abundant harvest for the land.

Three hundred and twenty li to the west lies Mount Huaijiang, where the Qiushi River originates and flows north into the You River. The waters teem with spiral-shelled creatures (referred to as "Luomu"), while the mountain yields abundant realgar ore in blue hues, along with precious stones like Langgan (a pearl-like gem), gold, and jade. The southern slopes are rich in cinnabar, while the northern slopes abound in colorful gold and silver. This is the Mystic Garden (Xuanyuan) of the Celestial Emperor, overseen by the deity Yingzhao. Yingzhao has the body of a horse, the face of a human, tiger stripes, and bird wings. He roams the Four Seas, and his voice sounds like flowing water.

From Mount Huaijiang, looking southward, one can see the towering Kunlun Mountains, radiant and shrouded in swirling clouds. To the west lies the Great Marsh, where Hou Ji (ancestor of the Zhou dynasty) retreated in death. Its waters are rich in jade, while the north hosts the miraculous Yao tree (a colossal spiritual tree). Gazing northward, one beholds the Zhupi Mountains, home to the deity Huai Gui Lilun and a nesting ground for fierce birds of prey like eagles and harriers. To the east, layer upon layer of the Hengshan Mountains stretch into the distance (comprising four distinct ridges).

In the fantastical world recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), there exists a peculiar place: a group of ghosts called "destitute spirits" (qiong gui) gather at the four corners of a mountain range (the character "bo" refers to the side of a mountain). Here flows a river named "licentious waters" (yin shui), its currents crystal clear ("luoluo" describes the rippling movement of water).

This land is inhabited by a celestial deity who resembles an ox but possesses eight legs, two heads, and a horse's tail. Its voice resembles that of a mysterious creature called "bo huang" (the exact nature of which is now lost to time). Whenever this deity appears, war inevitably breaks out in the region.

Four hundred li to the southwest stands the sacred mountain known as "Kunlun Mound" (Kunlun zhi qiu), which serves as the earthly capital of the Celestial Emperor (Tian Di)—essentially his terrestrial palace. It is governed by a deity named Lu Wu (also called Jian Wu), who has the body of a tiger, nine tails, a human face, and tiger claws. This deity oversees the nine celestial domains and the gardens of the Celestial Emperor.

The mountain teems with bizarre creatures: a monstrous beast called "earth mole" (tu lou), which resembles a sheep but has four horns and devours humans; a bird called "qin yuan," shaped like a wasp but as large as a mandarin duck, whose sting kills birds and beasts and withers trees; and a divine bird called "quail bird" (chun niao), responsible for managing the Celestial Emperor's various belongings (possibly clothing or daily utensils).

The mountain also nurtures miraculous plants: a tree called "sand pear" (sha tang), bearing yellow flowers and red fruit that tastes like plums but lacks pits—eating it makes one immune to drowning; and an herb called "lian grass" (lian cao), shaped like a mallow but tasting like scallions—consuming it dispels fatigue (ancient texts describe it as the most delicious vegetable on Kunlun Mountain).

This passage describes geographical records of sacred mountains and rivers from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing). First mentioned is Mount Wuda, where the Red River (Chishui) originates from its northeastern corner, flowing southward before turning east to re-enter the mountain. Another branch of the Red River emerges from the southeastern corner, flowing southeast into the waters near Mount Fantian. The commentary notes this marks the terminus of the Red River, where King Mu of Zhou was said to have once lodged.

The Yang River (or Weishui) springs from the northwestern corner of the mountain, flowing southwest into the waters near Mount Choutu. The Black River (Heishui) also originates from the northwest, coursing westward into Mount Dayu. These regions are inhabited by various mythical creatures, such as nine-headed beasts and six-headed birds.

Three hundred seventy li to the west lies Mount Leyou, where the Peach River (Taoshui) originates and flows westward into Lake Ji. The area abounds with white jade, and its waters are home to a creature called the Hua fish (pronounced "Yu"), which resembles a snake but has four legs and preys on other fish.

Traveling another four hundred li across waterways and two hundred li through shifting sands brings one to Mount Yingmu. This mountain is governed by the deity Changcheng, the embodiment of the Nine Heavenly Virtues (De). This god has a human form but sports a leopard's tail. The mountain yields abundant jade, while its foothills contain plentiful bluestone but lack water sources.

Continuing westward three hundred fifty li leads to Mount Yu (Jade Mountain), the dwelling place of the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu), an important Daoist goddess. The mountain derives its name from its abundant jade deposits and is referred to as the "Mountain of Congregated Jade" in The Biography of King Mu. The Queen Mother appears human but has a leopard's tail and tiger's fangs, excelling at producing prolonged whistling sounds. King Mu of Zhou once mined vast quantities of jade here to bring back to his kingdom.

This passage describes the image and legends of the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu) from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing). Xiwangmu is a goddess with disheveled hair adorned with jade ornaments (called "sheng"), who governs celestial calamities and the five punishments. She resides in the western regions, keeping company with tigers, leopards, birds, and magpies, and claims to be the daughter of the Heavenly Emperor.

The text recounts the legend of King Mu of Zhou (known as the Son of Heaven Mu) journeying westward to visit Xiwangmu: bearing precious gifts, the king met with her at the Jade Pool (Yaochi), where she sang for him, expressing her hope for his return. King Mu promised to revisit in three years and later commemorated this meeting by carving a stone inscription at Mount Yan (also called Mount Yanzi).

The passage then describes two mythical creatures: one called the "jiao," resembling a dog with leopard-like markings, ox horns, and a barking cry—its appearance heralds bountiful harvests for the state. The other is a bird named "shengyu," resembling a pheasant but red in color, feeding on fish with a distinctive call—its presence foretells great floods in the land.

Lastly, it mentions Xuanyuan Mound, where the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) once dwelled and married a woman from the Xiling clan. The Xun River originates here, flowing south into the Black Water, its waters rich in red sand and blue realgar ore.

Three hundred li to the west stands Mount Jishi, beneath whose stone gates flows a westward-bound river (the character "冒" here denotes coverage; Mount Jishi is located southwest of the Jinchuan River Pass in Qiang territory, where the Yellow River turns eastward into the frontier). This mountain abounds with all things (according to the Commentary on the Water Classic quoting the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Mount Jishi lies east of Mount Denglin and marks where the Yellow River enters the frontier).

Another two hundred li westward lies Mount Changliu, dwelling place of the White Emperor Shaohao (also known as Jintianshi, a title of Emperor Zhi). All beasts here bear patterned tails (some texts read "long tails"), while birds display markings on their heads (alternatively "long heads"). The mountain yields exceptionally patterned jade and houses the palace of the deity Yuanshen Kui, who governs the optical phenomena of sunset (when shadows reverse eastward at dusk, this god observes the phenomenon).

Proceeding 280 li further west stands Mount Zhang'e, barren of vegetation but rich in yaobi jade. Extraordinary creatures dwell here: a beast resembling a red leopard with five tails and one horn, whose cry sounds like stone striking stone, called Zheng (as recorded in Jing's Commentary on the Changes, this resembles the sound of clashing stones); and a crane-like bird with single red leg, blue body adorned with red patterns, and white beak named Bifang—its cry echoes its name, and its appearance heralds strange fires.

Three hundred li westward rises Mount Yinshan, source of the Zhuoyu River flowing south into Fan Marsh, its waters teeming with patterned shells. Here dwells a feline creature (some texts say leopard-like) with white head called Tiangou, whose "liuliu" cry (alternatively rendered "miaomiao") wards off malign influences.

Two hundred li further west stands Mount Fuyang (pronounced like "yang"), its slopes thick with palm and nanmu trees, its base rich in gold and jade. The deity Jiangyi resides here, where strange rains, snows, winds and clouds frequently manifest.

The westernmost peak, 220 li distant, is Mount Sanwei (within present-day Dunhuang Prefecture, mentioned in the Book of Documents regarding "banishing the Sanmiao tribes to Sanwei").

In the western mountains recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), there stands a peak inhabited by three azure birds—mythological creatures that fetched food for the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu). This mountain spans a hundred li, and upon its slopes roams a monstrous beast resembling a white ox with four horns, its shaggy fur draped like a straw rain cloak. Known as the "Xiaoyu," it devours humans. Another bizarre bird dwells here, possessing one head but three bodies, its feathers akin to those of an eagle, called the "Chi."

A hundred and ninety li further west lies Gui Mountain, abundant in jade yet devoid of ordinary stones. Here resides the deity Qitong (son of the ancient emperor Zhuanxu), whose voice resonates like the clear chime of bells and stone chimes. The mountain’s foothills teem with serpents.

Journeying another three hundred and fifty li westward brings one to Tian Mountain, rich in gold, jade, and the mineral realgar. The Ying River originates here, flowing southwest into the Valley of Tang. The mountain is home to a peculiar deity: its body resembles a yellow sack, blazing red like fire, with six feet and four wings. Though faceless, it sings and dances—this is the legendary Dijiang (the God of Chaos). The Zhuangzi’s allegory of the Central Emperor Hundun (Chaos), who perished when the gods Shu and Hu bored seven apertures into him, finds its prototype here.

Two hundred and ninety li further west stands You Mountain (pronounced like the word for "dark"). Guarded by the metal god Rushou (a deity with a human face, tiger claws, a white tail, and wielding a weapon), the mountain yields a jade called "Yingduan." Its sunny slopes abound with fine jade, while the shaded side is rich in realgar. Gazing westward from here at sunset, one can observe the circular halo of the sun (its shape mirroring the orb itself), overseen by the deity Hongguang.

Traveling westward along the waterways for a hundred li brings one to Mount Yiwang (also recorded in some versions as "Mount Tu" or "Mount Cui"). This mountain has no vegetation but contains abundant metals and jade.

Among its peaks dwells a peculiar beast resembling a wildcat, said to possess three tails, called the "Huan" (pronounced like "huan," though some texts record it as "Yuan"). Its cries can imitate hundreds of sounds (meaning it can mimic the calls of various animals, though some interpretations suggest it imitates the sounds of hundreds of objects). This creature can ward off calamities, and its fur is used to treat jaundice.

The mountain also hosts a strange bird resembling a crow but with three heads and six tails, known for its laughter-like calls, called the "Qiyu" (exact pronunciation uncertain). Wearing its feathers prevents nightmares (the Zhou Shu records that "yan" means freedom from nightmares) and can also repel misfortune.

From Mount Chongwu to Mount Yiwang, this third western mountain range comprises twenty-three peaks spanning 6,744 li. The mountain deities here all have goat-like bodies with human faces. Rituals for them involve burying a piece of colorful jade (ancient people considered patterned jade auspicious) in the earth, with millet (an ancient grain crop) as the offering.

The first peak of the fourth western mountain range is called Mount Yin, covered with paper mulberry trees but lacking rocks, its grasses dominated by mallows and green sedge (similar to but larger than cyperus grass). The Yin River originates here, flowing westward into the Luo River.

Fifty li north lies Mount Lao, abundant with gromwell (also called ziyi, used for purple dye). The Ruo River originates here, flowing westward into the Luo River. Another fifty li west is Mount Bafu, where the Er River flows westward into the Luo River, its waters rich in purple jasper.

One hundred seventy li north stands Mount Shen, its slopes thick with paper mulberry and oak trees, while its foothills flourish with spindle and evergreen oak. The southern face abounds in metals and jade. The Qu River originates here, flowing east into the Yellow River. Two hundred li further north rises Mount Niao, its heights covered with mulberry trees and its base with paper mulberry, the northern slopes rich in iron ore and the southern in jade. The Ru River flows from here eastward into the Yellow River.

Continuing northward one hundred twenty li brings one to Mount Shangshēn, its barren heights strewn with massive boulders ("luo stones" meaning great rocks), while its foothills teem with hazel and arrow bamboo (hazelnuts resembling small chestnuts with sweet flavor, the bamboo used for arrow shafts).

This passage describes a series of mountain ranges and their surrounding environments. An animal called the white deer is commonly found here, along with a bird named danghu that resembles a pheasant. The danghu flies using the whisker-like feathers beneath its neck, and consuming its meat is said to cure dizziness and blurred vision. The Tang River originates here, flowing eastward into the Yellow River.

180 li to the north lies Zhuci Mountain, where the Zhuci River begins its course eastward into the Yellow River. The mountain is densely forested but lacks grass, and neither birds nor beasts dwell here—instead, it teems with snakes. Another 180 li north is Hao Mountain, abundant in lacquer trees and palms, with medicinal herbs like angelica, aromatic grasses, and Szechuan lovage dominating the vegetation. The mountain also yields a mineral called ling stone. The Duan River originates here, flowing east into the Yellow River.

220 li further north is Yu Mountain, rich in iron ore on its northern slopes and copper on the southern side. The wildlife consists mostly of white wolves and white tigers, while the avian population is dominated by white pheasants and white kingfishers. The Sheng River rises from this mountain, coursing eastward into the Yellow River.

250 li to the west stands Baiyu Mountain, its upper slopes thick with pines and cypresses, while oaks and sandalwoods flourish below. The fauna here is primarily composed of zuo oxen and qian sheep, with owls being the most common birds. The Luo River originates on the southern side, flowing east into the Wei River, while the Jia River emerges from the northern slopes, joining the Sheng River to the east.

300 li northwest lies Shenshou Mountain, a barren land devoid of vegetation and perpetually covered in snow. The Shen River springs from its summit, flowing underground before resurfacing at the base. The mountain is rich in white jade. Another 55 li west is Jinggu Mountain, where the Jing River begins its southeastward journey into the Wei River. This region yields abundant white metal and white jade.

120 li further west stands Gang Mountain, its slopes covered in firewood trees and producing a type of jade called tufu. The Gang River originates here, flowing north into the Wei River. This area is frequently haunted by shenwei—spirit creatures akin to chimei (mountain demons).

This passage describes several extraordinary creatures and geographical features recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing).

First mentioned is a creature called "Chihui" (also written as "𩲫"), which has a human face and an animal body, with only one foot and one hand. Its voice resembles human chanting. The text then describes the tail of Gang Mountain as the source of the Luo River, which flows north into the Yellow River. In its waters lives a creature called "Manman," shaped like a rat's body with a turtle's head, whose cry resembles a dog's bark.

Three hundred and fifty li to the west lies Yingdi Mountain, covered with lacquer trees on its slopes, while its foothills abound with metal and jade. All birds and beasts here are white. The Yuan River originates here, flowing north into Lingyang Marsh. In its waters dwells the "Ranyi fish," which has a fish's body, a snake's head, six feet, and eyes resembling horse ears. It is said that consuming this fish prevents nightmares and wards off danger.

Another three hundred li west stands Zhongqu Mountain, with jade abundant on its southern slopes and realgar, white jade, and metal on its northern side. Here lives a beast called "Bo," resembling a horse with a white body and black tail, sporting a single horn and tiger-like teeth and claws. Its roar sounds like drumbeats, and it feeds on tigers and leopards. Keeping it can protect against weapon injuries. The mountain also hosts a tree called "Huaimu," with round leaves and red fruits the size of papayas. Eating its fruit increases one's strength.

Two hundred and sixty li further west, Gui Mountain is home to the "Qiongqi," a beast shaped like an ox with hedgehog-like bristles, barking like a dog, and known to devour humans. The Meng River originates here, flowing south into the Yang River. Its waters teem with yellow shellfish and a creature called "Luoyu," a fish with bird's wings whose call resembles mandarin ducks. Its appearance heralds great floods.

Finally, two hundred and twenty li west lies the Bird-and-Rat Shared Burrow Mountain (modern Shouyang Mountain in Gansu).

In the mountains southwest of the county, there exists a peculiar phenomenon of birds and rats sharing the same burrow. The bird is called Yu, while the name of the rat is lost in historical records. The rat resembles a house mouse but has a shorter tail, while the bird looks like a swallow but is yellow in color. They dig burrows together, reaching several feet deep, with the rat dwelling inside and the bird residing outside. Kong Anguo's "Commentary on the Book of Documents" states they live together as male and female, while Zhang's "Geographical Records" notes they do not engage in mating.

This mountain is home to many white tigers and white jade. The Wei River originates here, flowing eastward into the Yellow River (from Shandong to Huayin County in Hongnong Commandery). The waters teem with Sao fish (pronounced like "sao"), which resemble sturgeons (sturgeons are large fish with lower-jaw mouths and armored scales, also called catfish carp). Legend says unusual movements of this fish foretell large-scale warfare in the region (some versions omit the text after "when it moves").

The Lan River (pronounced like "jian") flows from the western side of the mountain, joining the Han River to the west. Here dwell many Pipi fish (pronounced like "pi"), shaped like inverted cauldrons with bird heads, fish fins, and tails, making sounds like striking chime stones. These fish can produce pearls and fine jade (similar to pearl oysters).

Three hundred sixty li southwest lies Mount Yanzi (legendary sunset location mentioned in "Li Sao", pronounced "yan zi"). The mountain grows abundant red trees with leaves like paper mulberry and melon-sized fruits bearing red skins with black patterns—eating them cures jaundice and provides fire resistance. The southern slopes yield many turtles, while the northern slopes produce jade. The Shao River (or Ruo River) originates here, flowing west into the sea ("Yu's Great Commentary" records the Weipan River emerging from Yanzi). Its waters contain abundant whetstones (fine-grained ones called di, coarse ones called li).

The mountain hosts strange creatures: a beast with a horse's body, bird wings, human face, and snake tail named Shuhu that enjoys lifting people up, and an owl-like bird with a human face, monkey body, and dog tail (a type of macaque, pronounced "yi" or "zhu") whose cry sounds like its name. Its appearance heralds severe drought.

Summarizing the records of the Western Fourth Mountain Range: from Mount Yin to Mount Yanzi...

The Classic of Western Mountains records a mountain range spanning seventeen thousand five hundred and ten li, with nineteen peaks extending over three thousand six hundred and eighty li. The rituals for venerating these mountain deities were highly elaborate: pure white chickens were offered as sacrifices, polished rice served as sacred grains for prayers, and white cogon grass was woven into mats to adorn the altars.

Several extraordinary creatures are mentioned here: the qián yáng, a wild mountain goat standing six feet tall with a fiery red tail resembling a horse’s; Mount Taihua (modern Huashan), sheer as if cleaved by a blade, where legend speaks of divine maidens gathering jade nectar; and the féi yí snake, whose appearance heralds drought but vanishes after prayers in the mulberry groves.

The tóng qú bird foretells calamity, while the chì bì bird wards off fires. The fruit of the wén jīng plant cures deafness, and the mín bird, though tiny, protects against misfortune. Liú zhě, a crimson mineral found in riverbeds, was used for smelting iron and treating bovine skin ailments.

The háo zhì (porcupine) bristles with spines sharp as awls, capable of launching them at will, and is hermaphroditic. Huáng guàn grass heals illnesses, its seeds bright red; the féi yí bird resembles a quail, its meat preventing epidemics; the xiāo beast, with long arms, excels at hurling objects. Most peculiar is the tuó féi bird—human-faced, single-legged, and active in winter while dormant in summer. Carrying its feathers wards off thunder.

Táo zhī bamboo from Mount Bōzhǒng grows in dense, shadowy thickets, woven into cooling mats for rest or fashioned into staffs for protection. Dù héng grass sends gibbons into frenzied dashes and startles horses, illustrating nature’s diverse traits. The gū róng tree blooms without fruiting; the biān xī beast, dog-like, exorcises evil; the lì bird treats hemorrhoids; and parrots, with green feathers and crimson beaks, are notably clever.

Yù shí, a mineral, poisons rats yet fattens silkworms, revealing how seemingly contradictory properties share an underlying unity. Details on the huān rú, a mythical beast, remain sparse. These records reflect ancient observers’ unique lens, blending practical knowledge with mythic imagination.

This describes various marvelous creatures and spiritual beings recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing):

There is a mythical beast called "Xuanru" with a deer's body, four horns, horse's hooves, human hands, and a white tail. It can manifest three forms simultaneously and excels at climbing trees and rocks.

The "Yingwu" is an intelligent bird that dwells in forests, with a mulberry-leaf-shaped beak and four divided toes. It grooms its feathers with its beak while walking and prefers staying in quiet cages.

The "Shusi" bird has human-like feet and resembles an owl. Another creature called "Xuan" has enormous eyes, while the bizarre "Lei" bird possesses two heads and four feet, flying as if conjoined in midair.

The "Luan" bird soars from Nüchuang Mountain, while the phoenix emerges from Danxue Mountain. They flap their wings in mutual response, answering the summons of sages. When stones are struck, they produce melodies as exquisite as the ancient Shao music.

The appearance of the "Fuxi" bird and "Zhuyan" beast foretells impending war. Though different in kind, their omens resonate similarly—a phenomenon defying conventional explanation.

The "Manman" is a pair-bonded bird resembling a wild duck with blue-red plumage. Though sharing one body, they remain separated until stretching their necks to reunite, folding wings together when flying apart.

The "Danmu" tree radiates brilliance, while "Jade Nectar" boils with golden froth. The Yellow Emperor (Huang Xuan) consumed these and ascended to heaven astride a dragon, leaving his subjects weeping as they gazed skyward.

"Jinyu" refers to the exquisite jade of Zhongshan Mountain, its flowing colors like rainbow clouds. Noblemen wear it as a symbol of virtue (De) to ward off malign energies.

Zhongshan's two sons, "Gu" and "Qinpeng," murdered Zujiang. The Heavenly Emperor executed them east of Kunlun Mountain, where they transformed into giant birds posthumously.

The appearance of "Yaoyu" fish heralds bountiful harvests. It navigates twin seas, spreads wings across skies, and delights with its exquisite flavor.

The deity "Yingzhao" governs Huaijiang Mountain, patrolling the Four Seas while dancing upon clouds. This area constitutes the Heavenly Emperor's garden, known as the "Mystic Orchard" (Xuanpu).

The "Yaomu" is a sacred tree bearing "Ruo" wood, with sprawling roots and radiant light. Consuming its fruit bestows immortality, enrolling one in the celestial registers.

"Kunlun Peak" houses the moon's essence—a watery spiritual palace serving as the Heavenly Emperor's earthly capital and the Queen Mother of the West's (Xiwangmu) abode. It towers like the celestial pillar.

The god "Luwu" guards Kunlun, commanding the heavenly gates while inhaling and exhaling the Qi of heaven and earth, appearing as a majestic bear deity.

The "Tulou" is a man-eating, four-horned sheep-like monster, while the "Qinyuan" resembles a venomous hummingbird the size of a mandarin duck—its touch proving fatal.

The "Shatang" tree requires no elaboration, likely referencing some divine arboreal species.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records various marvelous creatures and geographical wonders:

There exists a tree called Shatang whose fruits can be used to make dragon boats that sail freely upon the azure sea. There is also a divine bird called Chunniao, while Shatang fruits are considered precious delicacies, and another peculiar vegetable known as Mang grass.

The mountain deity Changcheng was conceived from the Qi of Nine Virtues (Jiude zhi qi), possessing a leopard's tail. The Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu), daughter of the Heavenly Emperor, has disheveled hair and a tiger-like countenance—King Mu of Zhou once presented her with gifts and composed poetry in her honor. From the Accumulated Stones Mountain gushes forth the Chong River, where the Great Yu once controlled the floods.

Shao Hao (one of the Five Emperors), known as the White Emperor, resides in the Kuishi Palace overseeing the sunset. On Zhang'e Mountain dwells a monstrous beast called Zheng, resembling a leopard but crimson all over, with five tails and a single horn, its cry sounding like stone striking stone.

The fire-essence bird Bifang has vermilion feathers; during droughts it soars high, flapping its wings to bring calamity. In antiquity, tortoise shells and cowries served as currency, traded according to their patterns and sizes. Though small, the Heavenly Dog can ward off evil and avert disasters.

The Three Blue Birds (messengers of Xiwangmu) inhabit Three Perils Mountain, frequently traveling to Kunlun Mountain. Where the river-doubting deity Jiangyi dwells conceals winds and clouds. There's a beast named Aoye with fur like a raincoat, and the Huai bird with one head but two bodies.

Qitong (son of Zhuanxu) served as Fire Minister, his voice resonant as temple bells. The primordial deity Dijiang possessed innate spiritual wisdom. The Qitu bird has three heads, the Yuan beast three tails—both can repel evil, and when gentlemen wear them, they avert misfortune.

The Danghu bird, a legendary marvel, flies without flapping wings. These records reveal the ancients' imagined mystical world, seamlessly blending natural phenomena with mythological lore.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records numerous extraordinary creatures and plants. Here we examine several representative examples:

There exists a bird called Danghu that flies without wings, relying instead on beard-like feathers. This mirrors how a wheel's operation depends on the hollow space at its axle's center—the truly functional part is often what appears useless.

The white wolf is an auspicious beast that appears only during the reign of virtuous rulers. Capable of sensing celestial will and transforming its form, it once appeared carrying the Spiritual Hook (a symbol of heavenly mandate), disappearing at the Shang dynasty's fall and reappearing with Zhou's rise.

The white tiger is no ordinary beast—though fierce, it embodies benevolence. Its snow-white markings radiate light, appearing only in territories ruled by virtuous monarchs to voluntarily pledge allegiance.

Bo is a divine horse-like creature with a mane that reaches the clouds and a thunderous neigh. Its majestic aura can intimidate tigers and possesses power to avert military disasters.

Manman is a grotesque creature with a human face, rodent body, turtle head, and single leg, its cries resembling human moans. With horse-like eyes and ears, it specializes in devouring rebellious spirits.

Xiangmu wood resembles a door bolt. Long-term consumption of its fruit grants Herculean strength to uproot mountains and prolongs lifespan.

On Mount Bird-Rat-Shared-Den coexist Yu (bird) and Tu (rat)—creatures with different habits sharing one burrow, defying conventional explanation.

The Pi fish resembles an overturned cauldron, containing precious jade within. Rather than hoarding treasures, it naturally expels them through its tail, embodying the Daoist principle of "non-accumulation."

Danmu grows on Mount Xiaopan, bearing melon-like fruits with sweet-sour flavor that cure diseases and repel fire, surpassing even osmanthus and orchids in efficacy.

The Qiongqi beast resembles an ox with hedgehog bristles; the Luoyu appears fish-like but is actually avian; the Shuhu creature embraces humans upon sight.

The Sao fish normally lurks in deep pools, surfacing only when warriors brandish swords with rainbow-piercing-sun intensity—its emergence often foretells impending city calamities.

These records showcase ancient imagination interweaving zoological traits with moral concepts and natural philosophy, forming the Shanhai Jing's unique cosmological worldview.