《山海經》Vol. 3

The third volume of the Classic of Mountains and Seas records the wondrous landscapes of the northern mountain ranges. Mount Danhu, the first peak in the northern mountain system, is covered with ji trees (a type of elm-like tree used as fertilizer) and abundant in lush vegetation. The Feng River originates here, flowing westward into the You River, where patterned pi stones and ornamental stones are plentiful.

Two hundred and fifty li to the north lies Mount Qiuru, rich in copper deposits at its summit and jade at its base, though vegetation is sparse. The Hua River emerges from here, running westward into the Zhupi River (originating from Mount Zhupi). In its waters dwell slippery fish resembling eels but with red backs, their cries sounding like human quarrels—consuming them cures warts. There are also water horses here, shaped like horses but with ox tails, patterned forelegs, and calls resembling human shouts.

Another three hundred li north stands Mount Dai, abundant in jade at its heights and blue-green jasper stones below. Among its creatures is the qushu, a unicorn-like beast resembling a horse with a spiraled horn that wards off fire, and the qitu bird, adorned in five-colored red patterns, hermaphroditic in nature—eating it prevents abscesses. The Peng River flows from here westward into Pi Lake, home to the shu fish, shaped like a chicken with red feathers, three tails, six legs, and four heads, whose call resembles a magpie’s—consuming it dispels sorrow.

Four hundred li further north rises Mount Qiaoming, where the Qiao River runs westward into the Yellow River. Its waters hold the heluo fish, with one head and ten bodies, barking like a dog—eating it treats boils. The mountain also harbors a beast resembling a porcupine but covered in crimson quills.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records peculiar creatures and resources from several northern mountain ranges. Three hundred and fifty li to the north lies Zhuoguang Mountain, where the Xiao River flows westward into the Yellow River. Here dwells the "Xixi" fish, shaped like a magpie but with ten wings, its scales growing at the tips of its feathers. Its cry resembles a magpie's call, and it's said to ward off fires while its flesh prevents jaundice when consumed. The mountain abounds with pine and cypress trees, while palms and oaks dominate its foothills. Antelopes roam its slopes, and owls (possibly the "fan" bird mentioned) fill its skies.

Another three hundred and eighty li north stands Guo Mountain, its slopes thick with lacquer trees and its base covered with phoenix trees and knotty "ju" wood (used for walking sticks). Jade deposits fill its southern face, while iron ore dominates the north. The Yi River originates here, flowing west into the Yellow River. Bactrian camels (notable for their humps, desert endurance, ability to carry heavy loads and locate water sources) populate the area, alongside "yu" birds that resemble rodents with avian wings, bleat like goats, and allegedly deflect weapons.

Four hundred li beyond Guo Mountain's tail lies a jade-rich region devoid of ordinary stone. The Yu River flows westward into the Yellow River here, its waters teeming with patterned shells. Two hundred li further north rises Danxun Mountain, abundant in ailanthus and cypress trees, with wild chives and shallots (both mountain vegetables documented in the Erya lexicon) covering its slopes. The Xun River merges westward with the Tang River in this area inhabited by the extraordinary "ear-mouse" - a chimera with a rodent's body, rabbit's head, and elk's frame that barks like a dog. This creature allegedly flies using either its tail or whiskers, and consuming it prevents bloating while conferring immunity to poisons.

The final northern peak, Shizhe Mountain two hundred and eighty li beyond, grows no vegetation but yields exquisite jade. The Ci River originates here, flowing west into the Yellow River. Its slopes harbor the "Mengji" beast - a snow-white leopard-like creature with distinctive forehead markings that moves with exceptional stealth, its cries sounding like it's calling its own name.

One hundred and ten li to the north stands Bianchun Mountain (also called Chun Mountain), covered with wild onions, mallows, and chives (mountain onions are called gé, with large leaves), as well as wild peach and plum trees (mountain peaches bear small fruit with pits that do not easily detach). The Gang River originates here, flowing westward into the You Marsh. In the mountains dwells a beast resembling a long-tailed monkey, adorned with patterns, prone to grinning, and feigning sleep upon seeing humans (pretending to be asleep). Its cry sounds like it is calling out "yōu yàn" (also written as "yàn," pronounced like "è").

Two hundred li further north lies Manlian Mountain (pronounced like "wàn lián"), barren of vegetation. Here resides a beast resembling a long-tailed monkey but with a mane, an ox's tail, patterned forelimbs, and horse-like hooves. It calls out upon seeing humans and is named Zuzi, its cry echoing its own name. There is also a bird resembling a female pheasant with a human face, which jumps upon encountering people, called Songsi, its call also self-referential. The Han River originates here, flowing westward into the You Marsh, its waters rich in lodestone (magnetite, as mentioned in the Guanzi, which notes that copper deposits often lie beneath lodestone veins).

Another one hundred and eighty li north brings one to Danzhang Mountain, devoid of grass and trees. Here lives a beast resembling a leopard with a long tail, a human head, ox ears, and a single eye, named Zhujian (pronounced like a castrated ox). It enjoys roaring, carries its tail in its mouth while walking, and coils it when resting. There is also a bird resembling a pheasant, its head patterned, with white wings and yellow feet, called Baiye. Consuming it can cure throat ailments (ancient texts note that "yì" refers to the throat, a term still used in the Wu region) and alleviate dementia. The Li River originates here, flowing south into the Gang River.

Three hundred and twenty li further north stands Guanti Mountain, abundant in ailanthus and cudrania trees, with shifting sands and whetstones at its base. A beast resembling an ox but with a white tail dwells here, its cry like a human shout, called Songfu. A bird similar to the aforementioned Songsi is also found—resembling a female pheasant with a human face, jumping upon encountering people. The Jianghan River originates here, flowing westward into the You Marsh.

Two hundred li north of Mount Panhou stands Mount Panhou itself. Its slopes are thick with pine and cypress trees, while the foothills abound with hazel and thorny shrubs. The southern face yields abundant jade, while the northern side is rich in iron ore. Among its creatures dwells a beast resembling an ox but with long hair growing at its joints, called the "mao ox" (what we now know as the yak, with long hair on its back, knees, and tail). The Bian River originates here, flowing southward into Lake Li.

Another two hundred and thirty li north lies Mount Xiaoxian, a barren place devoid of vegetation yet perpetually covered in snow, winter and summer alike. Further north, two hundred and eighty li beyond, rises Mount Daxian, equally lifeless but with jade deposits at its base. Its sheer cliffs make ascent impossible. Here resides the legendary "long snake" (recorded as reaching a hundred xun in length—approximately 160 meters by modern measure), its bristles like boar's hair (similar to today's pit vipers, bearing patterns resembling mugwort ribbons interspersed with stiff, boar-like bristles), its cry resembling the night watchman's wooden clapper.

Three hundred and twenty li farther north stands Mount Dunhong, its slopes dense with palm and nanmu trees, its foothills overgrown with pi grass. The Dunhong River originates here, flowing westward into Lake You—this, in fact, marks the source of the Yellow River (northeast of Mount Kunlun). Its waters teem with red salmon (known today as pufferfish), while its beasts are mostly rhinoceroses and yaks (some texts mention "pu oxen," though their exact form remains unclear), and its birds are predominantly turtle doves.

Another two hundred li north lies Mount Shaoxian, barren of plants but rich in green jade. Here lurks the monstrous yayu: a crimson ox-bodied creature with a human face and horse legs (the Erya describes it as lynx-like with tiger claws), its cry like a wailing infant, known to devour humans. The Dun River flows eastward from here into the Yanmen River (originating from Mount Yanmen), its waters filled with baba fish (their exact species unknown, possibly related to pufferfish)—consumption brings fatal poisoning.

Finally, two hundred li north stands Mount Yufa, where the Huai River (pronounced "huai") finds its source.

To the northeast, a river flows into the Great Marsh, teeming with sao fish (pronounced "zao"), which resemble carp but have chicken-like claws. Consuming them can cure skin warts. In the mountains dwells a beast shaped like a dog with a human face, adept at throwing objects. It laughs upon seeing people and is called the shanhui (pronounced "hui"). It runs as swiftly as the wind, and its appearance heralds great storms across the land.

Two hundred li to the north lies Mount Beiyue, covered with tough trees like trifoliate orange and thorny shrubs. Here resides a beast resembling an ox but with four horns, human eyes, and pig ears, named Zhuhuai. Its cry sounds like a wild goose, and it preys on humans. The Zhuhuai River originates here, flowing westward into the Xiao River, where many yi fish (pronounced "yi") thrive. These fish have dog-like heads and bodies, and their cries resemble a baby’s wail (similar creatures exist in the sea today, with fish-like bodies but heads resembling tigers, deer, or boars). Eating them can cure madness.

Another 180 li north is Mount Hunxi, barren of vegetation but rich in copper and jade. The Xiao River begins here, flowing northwest into the sea. The mountain is home to a two-headed, two-bodied snake with four legs called feiwei. Its appearance foretells severe drought in the land (the Guanzi records that the essence of drought is named chi, also a one-headed, two-bodied creature eight feet long—calling its name can aid in catching fish and turtles).

Fifty li further north stands Mount Beidan, devoid of trees but abundant in wild chives and leeks. Another hundred li north is Mount Pichai, treeless but populated by wild horses (smaller than domestic breeds). Yet another 180 li north lies Mount Beixian, also home to many wild horses. The Xian River originates here, flowing northwest into the Tuwu River (during Emperor Wu of Han’s reign in 121 BCE, horses were said to appear in these waters).

Finally, 170 li to the north is Mount Di (also written as "di"), where wild horses roam. A leopard-like beast with patterned markings on its head, called yao (pronounced "yao"), inhabits the area. The Di River flows eastward from here into the Great Marsh, teeming with dragon-turtles.

The entire Northern Mountains Classic documents 25 mountains, from Mount Shanhu to Mount Di, spanning 5,490 li. The mountain deities here all bear human faces and serpent bodies.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records a series of northern mountain ranges with their geographical features and natural resources:

Mount Guancen (near present-day Taiyuan, Shanxi) stands on the eastern bank of the Fen River. Its summit is treeless but covered in grass, while its foothills yield abundant jade. The Fen River originates here, flowing westward into the Yellow River. Local sacrificial rites use roosters and pigs as offerings, burying jade tablets (gui) without grain offerings. Northern residents here eat raw food, avoiding cooked meals.

Two hundred fifty li north lies Mount Shaoyang, rich in jade atop its slopes and high-quality silver ore (chiyin) below. The Sour Water originates here, flowing east into the Fen River, its waters abundant with premium red ocher (iron-rich red mineral).

Another fifty li north stands Mount Xianyong (in present-day Jinyuan District, Taiyuan), its heights rich in jade and foothills abundant in copper deposits. The mountain teems with wild asses and elk, while white-feathered pheasants dominate the avian population. The Jin River originates here, flowing southeast into the Fen River, its waters filled with red ci fish—small white fish resembling minnows that make sounds like human scolding. Legend claims consuming them eliminates body odor.

Two hundred li further north rises Mount Huqi, barren of vegetation but producing abundant green-blue jade. The Sheng River flows from here northeast into the Fen River, carrying plentiful green jade in its currents.

Three hundred fifty li beyond stands the White Sand Mountain, a three-hundred-li expanse of pure dunes devoid of flora and fauna. The Wei Water gushes from its peak only to vanish underground, while the area yields white jade.

Finally, forty li north lies Mount Ershi—a desolate, waterless mountain where no plants grow.

Three hundred and eighty li to the north stands Kuang Mountain, where no grass grows. This mountain remains snow-covered throughout winter and summer alike. The Kuang River originates here, flowing westward into the Fu River, whose waters abound with exquisite jade stones.

Another three hundred and eighty li northward lies Zhuyu Mountain, rich in copper and jade deposits, with dense pine and cypress forests covering its slopes. The Zhuyu River flows eastward from here into the Mao River.

Continuing north for three hundred and fifty li brings one to Duntou Mountain, abundant in gold and jade but devoid of vegetation. The Mao River originates here, flowing eastward into the Qiong Marsh. This area is home to a peculiar creature called the "Bo Horse" — possessing an ox's tail, a white body, and a single horn, its cry resembling human shouts.

Another three hundred and fifty li northward stands Gouwu Mountain, with jade stones covering its heights and copper deposits below. Here dwells a monstrous beast with a sheep's body and human face, its eyes positioned beneath the armpits, sporting tiger fangs and human claws. Its infant-like wails identify it as the Paoxiao (the legendary Taotie), a man-eating creature.

Three hundred li further north lies Beixiao Mountain, where green jade abounds on the southern slopes and fine jade on the northern side. This area hosts a tiger-like beast called the Dugu, with a dog's head, horse's tail, and boar's bristles. Another creature, the human-faced crow-like bird named Banmao, remains hidden by day and active by night — consuming it cures heatstroke. The Cen River flows eastward from here into the Qiong Marsh.

Three hundred and fifty li northward stands Liangqu Mountain, sparse in vegetation but rich in gold and jade. The Xiu River flows east into the Yanmen River. Most local beasts here are Juji — resembling red-haired hedgehogs with pig-like grunts. A peculiar bird called Xiao possesses four wings, one eye, and a dog's tail, its magpie-like call heralding its value as remedy for abdominal pain and diarrhea.

Finally, four hundred li north lies Guguan Mountain — another vegetation-free peak where snow never melts throughout the year.

Three hundred and eighty li to the north stands Huguan Mountain. Its southern slopes abound with jade, while the northern side yields plentiful green jasper (a bluish-green jade) and hosts many wild horses. The Huguan River originates here, flowing eastward into the sea. The waters teem with eels, and the mountain grows a peculiar tree whose leaves resemble willow foliage but bear crimson veins.

Journeying another five hundred li northward by waterway, traversing three hundred li of shifting sands, one reaches Huanshan. This mountain is rich in gold and jade, where the legendary Three Mulberry Trees grow—branchless trunks soaring a hundred ren (an ancient unit measuring about seven to eight chi each) skyward. The foothills bear various fruit trees but also swarm with strange serpents.

Three hundred li further north lies Dunti Mountain, barren of vegetation yet abundant in gold and jade deposits. This mountain rises like a colossal bell by the shores of the North Sea.

The entire second mountain range of the Northern Mountains stretches from Guancen Mountain to Dunti Mountain, comprising seventeen peaks spanning 5,690 li. The mountain deities here all bear human faces upon serpent bodies. For their worship, bury a rooster and a pig as mao offerings (hairy sacrifices) along with a jade bi disc and jade gui tablet (two ritual jade objects), but omit the refined rice (simply cast the jades into the mountains without burial).

The third Northern Mountain range begins with Taihang Mountain (northwest of modern Ye Wang County in Henan), whose foremost peak is called Gui Mountain. Its summit holds gold and jade deposits, while the lower slopes produce green jade. Here dwells a beast resembling an antelope with four horns, a horse's tail, and rooster spurs (the sharp rear claws of cocks), named Hun (pronounced "hui"). This creature delights in spinning dances, its cry sounding like its own name. Another marvel is a bird resembling a magpie—white-bodied, red-tailed, six-legged—called Ben (pronounced "ben"), easily startled and calling its own name.

Two hundred li northeast stands Longhou Mountain, devoid of vegetation but rich in gold and jade. The Juejue River (pronounced "jue" as in "formula") originates here, flowing east into the Yellow River. Its waters teem with human-fish resembling ti fish (a fish species), quadrupedal and crying like infants (some say these are giant salamanders—catfish-like with four legs and childlike cries; modern locals also call catfish ti fish). Consuming them prevents dementia.

Another two hundred li northeast lies Macheng Mountain, its slopes patterned with ornamental stones and northern cliffs laden with gold and jade. Here roams a beast resembling a white dog with a black head that flees at human approach...

These passages from the Classic of Mountains and Seas document several extraordinary mountains and their marvelous creatures:

The first section describes a creature called "Heavenly Horse" (Tianma) with fleshy wings that enables free flight, whose cry sounds like it's calling its own name. There's also a bird named "Jueju" with a white head, blue body, and yellow feet - consuming its flesh can prevent hunger, and possibly cure illnesses (the exact meaning of "yi yu" remains unclear).

Seventy li northeast stands Xian Mountain, with jade deposits on its summit and abundant copper ores below. The slopes are densely forested with pine and cypress, flourishing with purple herbs. The Tiaojian River originates here, flowing southwest into Long Marsh. Its waters contain something called "vessel acid" (qi suan) that takes three years to form - eating it can treat skin diseases.

Two hundred li further northeast lies Tianchi Mountain, barren of vegetation but rich in patterned stones. A strange beast called the "Flying Rat" (fei shu) resembles a rabbit with a mouse's head, capable of flight using the fur on its back (it flies belly-up). The Mian River emerges here, running underground beneath the mountain, its waters yielding abundant yellow ochre.

Three hundred li eastward stands Yang Mountain, abundant in jade and copper-gold ores. A creature called "Linghu" appears here - ox-like but with a red tail and fleshy dewlaps on its neck. There's also a bird named "Elephant Snake" (xiang she) resembling a multicolored pheasant that's hermaphroditic. The Liu River flows south from here into the Yellow River, containing fish called "Xianfu" with crucian carp heads and pig bodies - eating them cures vomiting.

Three hundred fifty li further east rises Benwen Mountain, producing green jade, yellow ochre, and black "nie stone" (a mineral). One hundred li north stands Wangwu Mountain (in present-day Yuanqu County, Shanxi), stony and rugged. The Lian River originates here, flowing northwest into Tai Marsh (Note: Lian River may be the ancient Ji River mentioned in classical texts).

Three hundred li to the northeast stands Mount Jiao, abundant in jade yet devoid of ordinary stones. The Jiao River originates here, flowing westward into the Yellow River. This river dries up in winter and flows only in summer, hence its local name "Dry River" (modern Donghe village northeast of Wenxi County retains this toponym, featuring dry riverbeds without water). Within the river stand two small hills, each spanning three hundred paces, called Mount Fawan, which contain deposits of metal and jade.

Three hundred li south lies Mount Jing. To its south stretches the Salt Merchants' Marsh (the salt ponds of Yishi County), while to the north lies Lesser Marsh. The mountain grows abundant yam roots (edible tubers resembling sheep hooves, called simply "shu" in southern regions) and plentiful Qin pepper (fruit resembling Sichuan pepper but with finer leaves). Its northern slopes yield abundant ochre, while the southern slopes produce jade. Here dwells a peculiar bird resembling a snake with four wings, six eyes, and three feet, named Suanyu—its cry sounds like its own name. Where this bird appears, panic ensues (some claim consuming its flesh prevents drunkenness).

Three hundred twenty li southeast stands Mount Mengmen (the Shizi records: "Before Dragon Gate opened and Mount Lüliang was chiseled, the Yellow River flooded backward over Mount Mengmen, submerging hills in great deluges." The Mu Tianzi Zhuan mentions "ascending northern Mengmen" as where the Nine Rivers clarify). The mountain yields abundant dark jade and metal ores, while its foothills contain yellow ochre and black alum (a dark mineral).

Another three hundred twenty li southeast brings us to Mount Ping, where the Ping River emerges from its summit, flowing underground to its base—this region produces superior jade.

Three hundred li east stands Mount Jing, yielding fine jade and flourishing with lacquer trees and bamboo groves. Copper ore abounds on its southern slopes, while black whetstones (xuanmo) are found to the north. The Gao River originates here, flowing south into the Yellow River.

Two hundred li further east lies Mount Chongwei, rich in metal and jade deposits, with bamboo forests and green jasper stones covering its foothills. The Dan River flows south from here into the Yellow River, while the Bo River (recorded in Huainanzi as originating from Mount Xianyu) runs southeast into Huangze Marsh.

Three hundred li to the east stands Mount Pengpi, devoid of vegetation but rich in metals and jade. Numerous streams flow at its base, where the Zaolin River originates, running southeast into the Yellow River. The Fei River also rises here, flowing south into the Chuang River, its waters teeming with Feiyi snakes.

Another hundred and eighty li east lies Mount Xiaohou, source of the Mingzhang River, which flows south into Huangze Marsh. Here dwells a peculiar bird resembling a crow with white markings, called Guxi (pronounced "Gu Xi"). Consuming its flesh is said to cure eye ailments.

Continuing eastward three hundred seventy li, one reaches Mount Taitou, where the Gong River (pronounced "Gong") begins its southward course into the Huchi River (pronounced "Hu Tuo"). The mountain yields abundant metals and jade, while its slopes are thick with arrow bamboo.

Two hundred li northeast stands Mount Xuanyuan, rich in copper deposits with bamboo forests covering its lower reaches. A unique bird inhabits these slopes, owl-like but with a white head, called the Huangniao. Its call echoes its own name, and eating its meat is believed to dispel jealousy.

Two hundred li north rises Mount Yeli (located in present-day Nie County, Shangdang Commandery), its pine and cypress forests sheltering metal and jade deposits. The Qin River originates here, flowing south into the Yellow River (entering near northeast Rongyang County; some claim its source is Mount Yangtou in Gushu County). East of the mountain lies the Danlin Forest, where the Danlin River flows south to the Yellow River, while the Yinghou River runs north into the Si River.

Three hundred li east stands Mount Jurui (mentioned in the Book of Songs: "By those fen marshes of Jurui"), barren of plants but yielding metals and jade. The Qi River (pronounced "Qi") begins here, coursing south to the Yellow River (modern Qishui originates from Mount Dahao in Longlü County, Jijun, flowing east through Henei County to form the Baigou channel).

Another three hundred li north lies Mount Shenqun ("Qun" pronounced like the granary character), its slopes producing patterned stone while white snakes and flying insects inhabit the foothills. The Huang River flows east from here into the Huan River (the Huan originates northeast of Linlü County, Jijun, merging with the Qing River at Changle in Wei Commandery; "Huan" is pronounced "Huan"), with the Fu River also rising in these heights.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records a series of northern mountain ranges and water systems. It first mentions Mount Fajiu (west of present-day Zhangzi County, Shanxi), covered with mulberry trees and inhabited by the "Jingwei" bird resembling a crow with a white beak and red feet. Legend says this was the transformed spirit of Nüwa, youngest daughter of the Flame Emperor (Shennong of antiquity), who drowned while playing in the Eastern Sea and became the Jingwei bird, eternally carrying twigs and stones from western mountains in her attempt to fill the sea.

The text then describes the turbid Zhang River (upper reaches of today's Zhang River) originating here and flowing east into the Yellow River. One hundred twenty li northeast stands Mount Shaoshan (near present-day Xiyang County, Shanxi), yielding metal and jade in its heights with copper deposits below. The clear Zhang River originates here, eventually merging with the turbid Zhang.

Two hundred li further northeast lies Mount Xishan, abundant in jade with whetstones at its base. The Niushou River flows east from here into the Fu River (today's Fuyang River in Ci County, Hebei). Another two hundred li north, Mount Jingshan produces fine jade, with Jing River flowing southeast into a lake.

The account notes two waterless mountains: Mount Tishou yields jade but is rocky and arid, while Mount Xiushan produces green jasper with abundant dogwood trees (used for walking sticks) and fragrant peonies/chuanxiong herbs. The Wei River originates here, flowing east into the Yellow River while yielding giant white catfish (hu) and small green toads (meng).

Finally, Mount Songshan is recorded as the source of the Yang River flowing northeast into the Yellow River. These concise descriptions outline ancient northern geography while documenting regional resources, with the Jingwei legend remaining particularly renowned.

One hundred twenty li to the north lies Dunyu Mountain, devoid of vegetation but rich in metals and jade. The Suo River originates from its southern slopes (Suo is pronounced as the reverse phonetic blend of "xi" and "ge"), flowing eastward into the Tailu River (now the Guangping Marsh north of Julu). The Zhi River rises from the mountain's northern side (Zhi is pronounced "di," meaning "unrestrained"), emptying east into the Peng River (today's Zhi River begins in Qiongquan Valley west of Zhongqiu County, passing east through Tangyang County to join the Zhang River). The Huai River also originates here, flowing east into the Zhi Marsh.

Another one hundred seventy li north stands Zhe Mountain, yielding metals and jade on its southern slopes and iron ore to the north. The Liju River emerges here, running north into the Wei River.

Three hundred li further north is Weilong Mountain, producing green jade, with metal deposits south and iron ore north. The Fei River springs forth here, flowing east into Gao Marsh, its waters containing piled stones (exact nature unclear; "piled" may describe stacked boulders or a specific stone type). The Changtie River also originates here, coursing north into the Great Marsh.

One hundred eighty li onward lies White Horse Mountain, abundant in stone jade to the south and iron/red copper to the north. The Mumu River begins here, running northeast into the Huchi River (pronounced "hu tuo").

Two hundred li north stands Kongsang Mountain (possibly sharing its name with a previously mentioned peak), barren of plants yet snow-capped year-round. The Kongsang River originates here, flowing east into Huchi.

Three hundred li further north is Taixi Mountain, vegetationless but rich in metals and jade. A peculiar beast dwells here—resembling a goat with a single horn, some say its eyes grow behind its ears—named Dongdong (pronounced like "ridgepole"), its cry echoing its name. The Huchi River begins here (modern Huchi originates from Wufu Mountain south of Lucheng County in Yanmen), flowing east into the Lou River (pronounced "lou"). The Yenyu River emerges from the southern slopes (Ye pronounced as "ye" or "yi"), joining the Qin River southward.

The final three hundred li north brings us to Stone Mountain, teeming with metals and jade. The Huohuo River rises here (Huo pronounced like the inchworm's "huo"), flowing east into Huchi. The Xianyu River also originates from this mountain.

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas documents the distribution of mountain ranges and river systems in the northern regions. To the south, a river flows into the Huchi (an ancient waterway). Two hundred li north lies Tongrong Mountain, from which Gaotu River originates, flowing eastward into Louye River.

Another three hundred li north stands Gaoshi Mountain (near present-day Lingqiu County, Hebei). The Zi River (pronounced "Ci") originates here, flowing south into Huchi. The mountain is lush with palm trees and abundant grasses. The Kou River (pronounced "Kou") also begins here, coursing east past the southern edge of Boling County before merging northeast into the Yi River.

Three hundred li further north is Lushan, rich in fine jade. The Yan River (also called Tan River) rises here, flowing east into the Yellow River. Another two hundred li north lies Qishan (pronounced "Qi"), where the Pan River (pronounced "Pan") runs east into the Yellow River. One hundred twenty li north stands Yanshan, known for its abundance of ying stones (a jade-like mineral with colorful veins). The Yan River originates here, flowing east into the Yellow River.

Continuing northward through five hundred li of mountain paths and waterways brings one to Raoshan, where vegetation is sparse but precious jade and yaobi stones are plentiful. The dominant beasts here are camels, while the most common birds are liu birds (species unidentified). The Liguo River flows east from here into the Yellow River, harboring a poisonous fish called shiyu (possibly giant salamanders) that can kill humans.

Four hundred li further north is Qianshan, entirely barren of plants: its southern slopes contain gold and jade deposits, while the northern slopes have iron but lack water. A strange creature called yuan (pronounced "Yuan") dwells here—a three-legged, ox-like beast whose cry resembles its own name. Another five hundred li north lies Lunshan, where the Lun River flows east into the Yellow River. A deer-like animal called pijiu inhabits the mountain, with its anus positioned on its tail.

Finally, five hundred li north brings one to Jieshi Mountain (near present-day Suizhong County, Liaoning, or alternatively by the coast of Changli County, Hebei). The Sheng River originates here, flowing east into the Yellow River. The waters teem with puyi fish (species unidentified), while the mountain yields jade and its foothills abound in green-blue ores. Continuing northward by water for five hundred li leads to Yanmen Mountain, where no plants grow.

This passage primarily describes the northern mountains, rivers, extraordinary creatures, and sacrificial customs recorded in the "Classic of Mountains and Seas: Northern Mountains Classic" (Shanhaijing·Beishanjing).

To the north stands Mount Didu, spanning a hundred li without a single blade of grass, yet rich in jade and metal ores. Five hundred li further north lies Mount Chunyu Mufeng, from which one can see Mount Jihao to the north, where fierce winds rage, and Mount Youdu (legendary entrance to the underworld) to the west, where the Black River originates. Here dwells a massive serpent with a red head and white body, whose bellow resembles an ox—its appearance heralds severe drought.

The entire Northern Mountains Classic documents forty-six mountains stretching from Mount Taihang to Mount Wufeng, spanning twelve thousand three hundred and fifty li. These mountain deities manifest in diverse forms: twenty have human faces with equine bodies, requiring fragrant herbs buried in the earth during sacrifices; fourteen appear as boar-bodied figures adorned with jade, worshipped with jade vessels left uncovered; and ten feature boar bodies with eight legs and serpent tails, requiring buried jade discs (bi) as offerings. All forty-four deities receive unhusked millet offerings, none of which are cooked with fire.

The text further records numerous marvelous creatures: the water-horse (a dragon-blooded steed said to have appeared during the Xia dynasty), the shu fish (a strange river-dwelling fish), the qushu beast (a fire-repelling unicorn), the qitu bird (a ten-bodied creature with one head), the heluo fish (a multi-headed monstrosity), the menghui (a red-maned badger-like animal capable of warding off evil), the xixi fish (a feathered, scaly fish granting fire immunity when consumed), and the tuo camel. Most of these creatures possess supernatural abilities or serve as omens of fortune and calamity.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhai Jing) records numerous extraordinary creatures and phenomena:

There is a strange beast called the tuo shou (camel beast) with fleshy humps on its back. It can sprint swiftly across quicksand, traverse vast distances, and even burrow underground in search of water. It is highly intelligent.

The er shu (eared mouse) treads the ground with its feet, parts the air with its feathers, and soars into the sky by raising its tail—truly marvelous. Its fur can ward off all poisons.

The you e resembles a monkey, feigning foolishness while actually being cunning. It laughs at everything it touches and pretends to sleep when it sees people, delighting in petty cleverness—yet ultimately, it remains bound by its own nature.

Among the yu niao (dwelling bird), meng ji, and zu zi beasts, there is a winged mouse whose cry sounds like a goat’s. The meng ji resembles a leopard but has a wicked temperament, howling loudly at the sight of humans.

The feathers of the jiao niao resemble those of a female pheasant. When flying in flocks, they can blot out the sky; when they land, they cover the plains. Its flesh can be used in place of acupuncture, eliminating the need for needles.

The zhu jian beast excels at roaring and walks with its tail in its mouth. The bai ye and song si birds resemble pheasants in appearance, leaping at the sight of humans, their feathers patterned like embroidery.

Lodestone attracts iron, and tortoiseshell draws mustard seeds—this is due to hidden resonances between them. The ways in which all things interact often defy expectations.

Yak tails are used both in warfare, adorning banners and drums, yet cattle can bring calamity—even their hair may invite misfortune.

A serpent stretching a hundred xun (an ancient unit of length) has bristles like a boar, can fly and run, and devours all living things—it is the most vicious of poisons.

The shan xiao beast delights in playful frolicking at the sight of humans. Gentle in nature, it moves as swiftly as a flying arrow, and its breath generates fierce winds.

Ferocious beasts like the ya yu and zhu huai harm people; the zao yu fish has sheep-like scales and black patterns; the fei yi snake has one head and two bodies.

The ji yu fish senses the movement of the sun, while the tu she snake foretells the night. Even the tiny ji yu eats with restraint—all things have their unique functions.

The pao xiao is insatiably greedy, with eyes beneath its armpits. While devouring humans, it begins gnawing on itself before finishing. Painting it on a ritual cauldron wards off disaster.

There is a leopard-like beast with splendidly patterned fur; the lü beast excels at leaping across perilous terrain; the xun horse has a single horn and a tiger-striped tail—collectively, they are called du you.

The jue fu bird resists summer heat, active by night and hidden by day, its rhythms inverted. All things are valued for their utility—why must they resemble the resplendent phoenix?

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records several mythical creatures: The Juji beast resembles a pig with the cry of a hedgehog, covered in red fur, possessing four wings yet only a single eye. The Xiao bird nests upon three miraculous mulberry trees—towering trunks devoid of branches.

A horned monster called the Hun beast sports a horse’s tail and spurs like a rooster (the sharp protrusions behind a chicken’s claws), capable of leaping across the perilous Gui Mountain. Its most peculiar ability is spinning in dance-like movements. Then there are the celestial horses, surpassing even cloud-riding dragons and mist-harnessing flying serpents, soaring effortlessly through the skies as if embodying the natural rhythms of the Dao.

The Juju bird resembles a crow with a blue body and yellow claws. Consuming its flesh prevents hunger, even enabling practitioners to master bigu (the Daoist practice of abstaining from grains). It often appears alongside the legendary Danmu tree. Flying squirrels exhibit even more marvels—some glide with their tails, others fly using their whiskers, suddenly launching skyward as if lifted by divine force.

The Fen bird, shaped like both a snake and a pheasant, reproduces asexually; the Xianfu fish has a fish’s head and a pig’s body. On Jing Mountain dwells the Suanyu bird, serpentine in form yet with two feet and four wings. Its presence spreads panic, though eating its meat grants immunity to drunkenness.

The meat of the Guzhu bird cures eye ailments, while the Huang bird calls out its own name—legend says women who consume it undergo a change in temperament. The daughter of the Flame Emperor, after drowning, transformed into the Jingwei bird, carrying twigs and stones daily from the Western Mountains in an attempt to fill the Eastern Sea.

Lastly, the Dongdong beast is recorded—sheep-like, with eyes behind its ears and an anus atop its tail. The Youdu Mountain harbors giant serpents whose roars echo like oxen. Though fantastical, these accounts reveal the astonishing imagination of ancient minds.