《山海經》Vol. 4

The fourth volume of the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing) records the eastern mountain ranges. It begins by describing the first mountain, named Susu Mountain (pronounced "sù zhū"), which lies north of Qianmei Mountain ("qián mèi," also a mountain name, pronounced "mèi"). A river called the Shi River originates here, flowing northeast into the sea. The river teems with Yongyong fish (pronounced "róng"), which resemble plow oxen with tiger-like stripes and make sounds akin to pigs.

Three hundred li to the south stands Lei Mountain (pronounced "lěi"), where jade is found on its slopes and gold deposits lie below. A lake-fed river begins here, flowing east into the Shi River, and is home to many tadpoles (ancient names include "huóshī" or "huódōng").

Another three hundred li south is Xunzhuang Mountain, rich in gold and jade deposits, with bluish-green jasper stones at its base. A peculiar six-legged dog-like beast called "Congcong" dwells here, its cry resembling its own name. There is also a bird resembling a chicken but covered in rat-like fur, named Zishu (pronounced "zī"), whose appearance heralds severe drought. The Zhi River (pronounced "zhǐ") originates here, flowing north into the lake-fed river, where slender-bodied Zhen fish (with needle-like mouths, found in the East Sea and Jiangdong regions) abound—consuming them is said to ward off epidemics.

Three hundred li further south lies the barren Boqi Mountain, followed by another three hundred li to the desolate Fantiao Mountain. Between them flows the Jian River ("jiǎn," meaning "diminishing"), which runs north into the sea and teems with yellow-cheeked fish (also called Gan fish, pronounced "gǎn").

Four hundred li to the south is Gu'er Mountain, abundant with lacquer trees on its slopes and mulberry and paper mulberry trees below. The Gu'er River flows north into the sea, also rich in Gan fish.

Another four hundred li south stands Gaoshi Mountain, where jade is plentiful on the summit, and whetstones (used for sharpening blades) and needle-stones (for treating abscesses) are found below. The Zhusheng River flows east into a marsh, its waters holding abundant gold and jade deposits.

Finally, three hundred li south is Yue Mountain, covered in mulberry trees at its peak and ailanthus trees at its base. The Luo River (pronounced "lì") runs east into a marsh, its waters also rich in gold and jade.

Three hundred li to the south lies Chai Mountain, where the summit is barren while the lower slopes abound with waterways. Here dwells a strange fish called Kanxu (pronounced "xù," exact species unknown), and a peculiar beast resembling the mythical giant Kuafu, with boar-like bristles and a cry like human shouting. When this creature appears, great floods sweep the land.

Another three hundred li south stands Du Mountain, rich in metal ores and jade on its heights, with beautiful stones covering its foothills. The Motu River originates here, flowing southeast into the Mian River. In its waters lives a creature called Tiaorong (pronounced "tiáo róng"), resembling a yellow serpent with fish fins that emits light when surfacing. Its appearance invariably heralds severe drought.

Journeying further south three hundred li brings one to Mount Tai (known as Dai Peak of the Eastern Marchmount, located in present-day Shandong, with a 48-li ascent from base to summit). The mountain yields abundant jade while its foothills teem with metal deposits. Here resides the Tongtong beast (pronounced "tóng"), shaped like a piglet yet capable of producing pearls, named for its distinctive cry. The Huan River originates here, flowing east into the Yangtze (some say the sea), its waters rich in crystal.

Another three hundred li south rises Zhu Mountain, towering by the riverbank (some say lakeshore), devoid of vegetation but abundant in exquisite jade. The Ji River flows from its slopes southeast into the Qutan River, teeming with purple spiral shells.

The entire Eastern Mountains Classic records twelve peaks from Susu Mountain to Zhu Mountain, spanning 3,600 li. These mountain deities all bear human bodies with dragon heads. Sacrificial rites require a dog as fur offering (maowu) and anointing ritual vessels with fish blood (a blood sacrifice called "er").

The first peak of the Second Eastern Classic is Kongsang Mountain (renowned for timber used in zither-making), bounded by the Shi River to the north, overlooking Juwu to the east, Shaling to the south, and Minze Marsh to the west. Here dwells the Lingling beast (pronounced "líng"), resembling an ox with tiger stripes, whose sigh-like cry also heralds catastrophic floods.

Six hundred li south lies Caoxi Mountain, its foothills thick with paper mulberry trees but devoid of water sources, though teeming with birds and beasts. Four hundred li southwest stands Yigao Mountain (pronounced "yì"), abundant in metal ores and jade.

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas records the geographical features and creatures of several peculiar mountain ranges:

At the foot of the mountain lies abundant chalk deposits. The Yigao River originates here, flowing eastward into the Jinu River, which teems with shenyao (a type of large clam whose shells were used for decoration). Traveling southward across five hundred li of waterways and three hundred li of quicksand brings one to the tail end of Ge Mountain—a barren land covered entirely in whetstones. Another 380 li further south stands the main peak of Ge Mountain, equally desolate. The Feng River (pronounced like "li") originates here, flowing east into Yu Marsh, where zhu bie fish (pronounced like "bie") abound. These fish resemble lung lobes in shape, possess six feet, and contain pearls within their bodies. Their sweet-and-sour flesh was believed to prevent seasonal epidemics when consumed.

Continuing 380 li south leads to Yu'e Mountain, densely forested with catalpa and nanmu trees, while thorny bushes dominate its foothills. The Zayu River flows east into the Yellow River. Here dwells a strange creature called qiu yu (pronounced "qiu yu"), shaped like a rabbit but with a bird's beak, owl's eyes, and snake's tail. It feigns death upon encountering humans (the character "mian" refers to this death-feigning state), and its appearance heralds locust plagues.

Three hundred li south lies Dufu Mountain—lush with water sources yet devoid of vegetation. Another three hundred li brings travelers to Geng Mountain, equally barren but rich in shuibi (a type of aqueous jade) and giant snakes. Here resides the zhu ru (pronounced "ru"), a fox-bodied creature with fish fins whose emergence foretells national panic.

Luqi Mountain abounds in sand and rocks without vegetation. The Sha River flows south into the Cen River, where one encounters the li peng (pronounced "li"), a bizarre bird resembling mandarin ducks but with human feet. Its appearance predicts large-scale construction projects. The final records describe the Guyue Mountain range: first the vegetation-less, water-rich Mount Guyue, then 300 li across waterways and 100 li through quicksand to North Guyue Mountain (rocky terrain), followed by another 300 li south to equally barren South Guyue Mountain.

These accounts preserve ancient imaginations of rare and marvelous beasts, linking animal characteristics with natural phenomena—reflecting early civilizations' observational approaches to geographical environments.

Three hundred li to the south stands Bi Mountain, devoid of vegetation but inhabited by numerous giant serpents. The mountain yields abundant jasper and "water jade" (a type of precious stone).

Another five hundred li south lies Gou'shi Mountain, equally barren of plants yet rich in metal ores and jade. A watercourse flows eastward from its slopes into the Sandy Marsh (some records alternatively name this mountain "Xia'shi Mountain").

Continuing southward three hundred li brings one to Gufeng Mountain—a place without grass or trees but plentiful in gold and jade. Here dwells a marvelous creature resembling a fox with wings, whose cry echoes the honk of wild geese. Named "Bi Bi" (pronounced "bì"), its appearance foretells great droughts across the land.

Five hundred li further south rises Fulì Mountain, its summit yielding gold and jade while its foothills produce needle-like minerals. More terrifying creatures inhabit these slopes: a monstrous beast shaped like a fox but with nine tails, nine heads, and tiger claws called "Lóngzhì" (pronounced "lóng zhì"), whose wails mimic infant cries—this man-eating horror lurks here.

Another five hundred li southward lies Yīzhēn Mountain (the name derives from the fanqie spelling "一真反切"). Its southern face borders the Yīzhēn River, while its eastern slopes overlook a marshy lake. Within dwells a peculiar creature: horse-bodied with a ram's head, four horns, and an ox tail, barking like a mastiff—this "Yōu Yōu" (pronounced "yōu") heralds the proliferation of deceitful people when it appears. The mountain also hosts an eerie bird resembling a wild duck with a rat's tail, adept at climbing trees. Named "Jié Gōu," its presence portends impending plagues.

This passage describes the second mountain range in the Classic of the Eastern Mountains (Dongshan Jing), spanning seventeen peaks from Kongsang Mountain to Yīzhēn Mountain across 6,640 li. These mountain deities all manifest with animal bodies, human faces, and antler-like horns. Ritual offerings require a live chicken as the "hairy sacrifice" (maowu), while jade discs (bi) buried underground secure blessings of peace.

The third eastern mountain range begins at Shihú Mountain, whose northern slopes overlook Xiáng Mountain (pronounced "xiáng"). Abundant in gold and jade above, its lower reaches bristle with thorns. Here roams the Wǎn Hú (pronounced "wǎn"), a deer-like creature with fish eyes that vocalizes its own name.

Eight hundred li southward via waterways leads to Qí Mountain, lush with peach and plum trees where tigers dominate the wildlife. Another five hundred li water journey south brings travelers to Zhūgōu Mountain—a hundred-li expanse of barren sand and stone yielding abundant wèi fish (pronounced "wèi"). Seven hundred more li along waterways reaches Zhōngfù Mountain, another desolate stretch of sand and stone. Finally, a thousand-li eastward water passage arrives at Húshè Mountain, where endless sands and rocks stretch beneath empty skies.

Seven hundred li south by waterway lies Mount Mengzi, where the trees are predominantly catalpa and paulownia, with abundant peach and plum trees. The vegetation mainly consists of mushrooms and cattails. The mountain's wildlife is primarily composed of elk and deer. Spanning a hundred li in circumference, its summit features a spring called Biyang Spring, teeming with sturgeon and Chinese sturgeon (the latter resembling the former but with a longer snout and lacking scales).

Another five hundred li south by waterway, traversing five hundred li of quicksand, stands Mount Qizhong ("Qi" pronounced as "qi"). This two-hundred-li mountain is barren of vegetation but inhabited by numerous giant serpents. Rich in jade deposits, it contains a forty-li water expanse where springs gush from the earth (similar to today's Fen Spring in Fenyin County, Shanxi), named Deep Marsh. The marsh abounds with loggerhead turtles (large turtles with patterned shells) and a peculiar fish resembling a carp but with six legs and a bird's tail, called the Gegou Fish, whose cry sounds like its name.

Continuing nine hundred li southward by waterway brings one to Mount Mouyu ("Mou" pronounced as "min"). Its slopes bear vegetation and yield abundant metal ores, jade, and ochre. Here dwells a beast resembling an ox with a horse's tail, named Jingjing, whose call echoes its name.

After another five hundred li by waterway and three hundred li through quicksand lies Mount Wugao. To its south stretches the Young Sea (known as Shao Hai in Huainanzi, referring to the eastern great marsh), while the Fusang Divine Tree stands visible to the east. This barren, wind-swept mountain spans a hundred li.

These nine mountains from Mount Shihu to Mount Wugao form the third eastern mountain range, stretching six thousand nine hundred li. Their mountain spirits all bear human bodies with ram's horns, requiring sacrificial offerings of a ram and millet. Their appearances often herald storms and floods.

The fourth eastern range begins with Mount Beihao near the Northern Sea. Its trees resemble poplars with red blossoms, bearing seedless jujube-like fruits of sweet-sour flavor that prevent malaria. The Shi River originates here, flowing northeast into the sea.

Here are records of several extraordinary creatures and mountains:

There exists a beast resembling a wolf, with a red head and rat-like eyes, whose cry sounds like a pig. Named the Géjū, it devours humans. Another creature, a bird resembling a chicken with a white head, rat feet, and tiger claws called Qíquè, also preys on humans.

Three hundred li to the south stands Máo Mountain, utterly barren of vegetation. The Cāngtǐ River originates here, flowing westward into Zhǎn River, teeming with lǐ fish (modern script writes this as "shrimp-loach"). These fish resemble carp but with unusually large heads; consuming them prevents tumor growth.

Another three hundred twenty li south lies Dōngshǐ Mountain, abundant with green jade. A peculiar tree grows here resembling poplar but with crimson-grained bark, its sap blood-like and bearing no fruit. Called Qǐ, applying its sap to horses makes them docile. The Cǐ River originates here, flowing northeast into the sea, containing numerous beautiful shells and pí fish. These fish resemble crucian carp but with one head and ten bodies, emitting a fragrance like míwú herbs. Eating them cures bloating.

Three hundred li southeast stands Nǚzhēng Mountain, equally barren. The Shígāo River flows west into Gé River, teeming with bó fish resembling eels that make sounds like human retching. Their appearance heralds great droughts.

Two hundred li southeast, Qīn Mountain abounds in metal and jade. The Shī River flows north into Gāo Marsh, housing xiū fish and patterned shells. A peculiar beast resembling a boar but with protruding tusks, called Dāngkāng, cries its own name—its appearance foretells bountiful harvests.

Two hundred li southeast lies Zǐtóng Mountain where Zǐtóng River flows west into Yúrú Marsh. The waters contain è fish (pronounced "huá") with fish bodies, bird wings, and bioluminescent movement. Their calls resemble mandarin ducks, and their emergence predicts severe droughts.

Two hundred li northeast, Yǎn Mountain also yields metal and jade. A beast dwells here resembling a boar with a human face, yellow body, and red tail—named Héyú (pronounced "yǔ"). Its infant-like cries accompany its consumption of humans, insects, and snakes; its appearance foretells catastrophic floods.

This passage comes from the Classic of Mountains and Seas: Eastern Mountains, primarily documenting the geographical features of a series of eastern mountain ranges and the extraordinary creatures that inhabit them.

Two hundred li to the east stands a great mountain, rich in metallic ores and jade, where privet trees grow (their leaves remain evergreen even in winter). Within the mountains dwells a strange beast resembling an ox but with a white head, a single eye, and a snake-like tail. It is called "Fei" (pronounced like "fei" in "feicui," or jadeite). Wherever it passes through water, the water dries up; where it treads on grass, the vegetation withers. Its appearance heralds the outbreak of a great plague (legend holds that it carries calamitous Qi within its body). The Gou River originates here, flowing north into the Lao River, its waters teeming with loaches.

The entire fourth range of the Eastern Mountains stretches from Mount Beihao to the Great Mountain, encompassing eight peaks over a distance of 1,720 li. In total, the Eastern Mountains records forty-six mountains spanning 18,860 li.

The text further describes various bizarre creatures:

• Qingyong fish and Congcong beast: The Qingyong fish resembles an ox, while the Congcong beast looks like a dog but has six feet.
• Zishu: A creature shaped like a chicken whose appearance foretells drought.
• Tiaoyong: A serpentine being that can vibrate its wings to emit light, swims in rivers, and signals impending drought when seen.
• Tongtong: A pig-like animal, seemingly ordinary but capable of bringing disaster.
• Kanyu fish and Lingling beast: Their presence heralds floods.
• Zhubie fish: Inhabits the Feng River, shaped like floating lung tissue.
• Qiu yu: Pretends to sleep when encountering humans; its appearance predicts famine.
• Lili beast and Zhihu bird: Their emergence warns of large-scale construction projects.
• Zhu nou: Its appearance spreads panic throughout entire cities.
• Long chi: Resembles a fox but has wings, nine tails, and tiger claws.

These records reflect the ancient people's observations and imaginative interpretations of natural phenomena, linking various disasters to the appearance of specific animals and forming a unique system of natural omens.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records several extraordinary creatures and their characteristics:

There exists a duck-like bird called "Xie" whose appearance causes sorrow among the people. When the creature "Youyou" emerges, it foretells the departure of virtuous individuals and the arrival of deceitful ones—a phenomenon so profound and enigmatic that none can fully comprehend its origins.

In the waters dwells a spiritual turtle known as "Xigui," capable of roaming within a forty-li radius and diving into boiling springs. By swaying its tail to cultivate Qi (vital energy), it moved even Zhuangzi (Master Zhuang) to wield his fishing rod in disdain for worldly power.

The "Yuanhu" resembles a deer but has fish-like eyes; the "Jingjing" beast looks like an ox yet can cleanse itself with its tail; the "Gege" fish can plunge to unfathomable depths. The "Heju" is a cunning beast, while the "Qique" is a vicious bird—some resemble wolves, others bear tiger claws. To subdue them, one need not resort to force; the proper method alone suffices.

Applying sap from the "Qimu" tree to horses enhances their strength and agility, naturally taming them without the need for training by experts like Bole (Sun Yang). Though this method seems ruleless, it conceals profound principles.

The "Pi fish" has ten bodies and exudes the fragrance of angelica; consuming it harmonizes one's inner Qi. The "Bao fish" leaping from water signals impending disaster. The "Heyu," with its pig-like body and human face, embodies greed and cruelty—a manifestation of extreme Yin energy whose arrival brings torrential rains.

The "Dangkang" beast, resembling a piglet, heralds bountiful harvests; the "Hua fish" sports bird-like wings and emits light while flying. Though appearing simultaneously, their omens differ—some auspicious, others calamitous.

The "Fei" is a calamitous monster, while the "Qizhong" inflicts severe disasters. Wherever they pass, waters dry up and trees wither—a devastation rooted in their innate malevolent nature.