《山海經》Vol. 5

The fifth volume of the Classic of Mountains and Seas records a series of mountain ranges in the Central Mountains section. First is Ganzao Mountain, where the Gong River originates, flowing westward into the Yellow River. The mountain is abundant with Chinese hackberry trees, while its foothills grow an herb with stems resembling mallows and leaves like apricot leaves, bearing yellow flowers and pod-like fruits called "tuoluo" (pronounced "ta-luo"), which can cure eye diseases. There's also a beast resembling a field mouse with patterned forehead called "nuo" (pronounced "na"), whose consumption treats goiter.

Twenty li east lies Li'er Mountain, densely covered with jiang trees and li wood (pronounced "li"). These trees have square trunks, round leaves, yellow fuzzy flowers, and fruits resembling chinaberries (which are finger-sized, white, sticky, and usable for laundry). Consuming them enhances memory.

Fifteen li further east is Quzhu Mountain, rich in bamboo. The Quzhu River originates here, flowing south into the Yellow River. Its waters teem with hao fish, resembling eels with red mouths, tails, and fins that cure skin diseases.

Thirty-five li east stands Conglong Mountain, featuring expansive valleys abundant with multi-colored earthen pigments (white, black, blue, and yellow clay for pigments). Another fifteen li east is Wo Mountain (pronounced "wo"), rich in red copper on its slopes and iron ore to the north.

Seventy li further east lies Tuohu Mountain, growing an herb with mallow-like leaves, red flowers, and palm-like pod fruits called "zhichu" that treats rodent ulcers (the Huainanzi notes civet cat heads also cure this) and prevents nightmares when consumed.

Twenty li east is Jinxing Mountain, yielding abundant "tianying" (likely a mineral) resembling dragon bones that cures carbuncles. Seventy li east stands Taiwei Mountain, where the Xiao Valley produces iron ore. Finally, fifteen li east is Jianggu Mountain (or Tangu Valley), rich in red copper.

Traveling east for 120 li brings one to Wulin Mountain, where abundant jiān grass (also known as jiān grass) grows. Another 30 li north lies Niushou Mountain (modern-day Chang'an, Shaanxi, has a Niushou Mountain southwest of it, with lodgings atop and rivers below, though it's uncertain if it's the same one). Here grows a plant called ghost grass, with leaves resembling chard, red stems, and flowers like grain spikes—consuming it dispels sorrow. The Lao River originates here, flowing west into the Zhà River (pronounced "zhà"), teeming with flying fish that resemble crucian carp; eating them cures hemorrhoids.

Continuing north for 40 li is Huoshan (modern-day Pingyang in Shanxi, Lujiang in Anhui, Jin'an in Fujian, and Gong County in Henan all have mountains named Huo, indicating multiple peaks bear this name. The Erya states that a large mountain encircling smaller hills is called "Huo"). The mountain abounds with paper mulberry trees and a beast resembling a wildcat, with a white tail and bristly fur, called the pèipèi—raising it alleviates melancholy ("raising" refers to domestication, pronounced pǔ mèi fǎn).

Another 52 li north lies Hegu Mountain, rich in zhān jí (exact identity unclear, pronounced "zhān"). Further north for 35 li is Yinshan (also called Xianshan), abundant in whetstones and patterned stones (whetstones are used for sharpening blades). The Shaoshui River originates here, its waters filled with diāo táng plants—leaves like elm but square, fruit like red beans—consumption cures deafness.

400 li northeast stands Gudeng Mountain, rich in red copper ore. Its slopes bear róng grass, with willow-like leaves and egg-shaped roots—eating it treats wind-induced paralysis. From Ganzao Mountain to Gudeng Mountain, there are fifteen peaks spanning 6,670 li, all part of the Li'er mountain range. Sacrifices to the main peak require a full tàiláo (a trio of ox, pig, and sheep) and auspicious jade hung in offering ("xiàn" refers to a mountain ritual, as noted in the Erya). The other thirteen mountains require a single sheep and a sāng fēng (mulberry spirit tablet) buried without refined rice. The sāng fēng is a mulwood tablet—square at the base, pointed at the top—pierced through the middle and adorned with gold and silver (indicating ritual use of gold and silver decorations. The Gongyang Commentary mentions mulwood tablets in yú sacrifices, sometimes written as "king").

The first mountain recorded in the Middle Second Classic of the Classic of Mountains and Seas is called Huizhu Mountain, covered with numerous mulberry trees. The mountain's beasts are mostly wild donkeys and elk, while the predominant birds are he birds (these resemble pheasants with blue-black feathers, known for their fierce and combative nature that persists until death, producing a cry that sounds like "he"). This mountain is located in the ancient Shangdang region.

Two hundred li to the southwest lies Fashi Mountain, abundant in metal ores and jade on its slopes, with whetstones commonly found at its base. The Ji Fish River originates here, eventually flowing into the Yi River.

Three hundred li further west is Hao Mountain, also rich in metals and jade but completely devoid of vegetation. Another three hundred li westward brings one to Xian Mountain, similarly abundant in metals and jade with no plant life. The Xian River flows north from here into the Yi River, inhabited by numerous ming snakes (these serpents possess four wings and produce sounds resembling struck chime stones; their appearance heralds severe drought in the region).

Three hundred li beyond lies Yang Mountain, its slopes covered entirely in stones without any vegetation. The Yang River flows north into the Yi River, teeming with hua snakes (these creatures have human faces, wolf-like bodies, bird wings, serpentine movement, and cries resembling human scolding; their emergence causes floods).

Two hundred li west stands Kunwu Mountain, famed for its red copper (this fiery-hued metal can forge blades that cut jade effortlessly. During King Mu of Zhou's reign, the Western Rong tribes presented swords made of this metal. Ancient texts record that the legendary Ganjiang Sword was forged from this copper-tin alloy). The mountain hosts a peculiar beast resembling a boar but with horns, emitting human-like wails called longchi; consuming its flesh allegedly prevents nightmares.

One hundred twenty li further west is Jian Mountain, where the Jian River originates and flows north into the Yi River. The slopes yield abundant metals and jade, while the foothills produce plentiful orpiment (a mineral). Here grows the mang grass, resembling wild pear trees but with red leaves, used for poisoning fish.

Finally, one hundred fifty li westward lies Dusu Mountain, devoid of vegetation but rich in water sources.

Two hundred li to the west stands Mount Manqu, rich in metals and jade on its peaks, with fine bamboo covering its slopes. The Yi River originates here, flowing eastward into the Luo River (modern Yi River rises northeast of Mount Xiong’er in Lushi County, Shangluo, and merges with the Luo River in Luoyang County, Henan). The mountain is home to a fearsome creature called Mafu, with a human face and tiger’s body, whose cries resemble a wailing infant. It preys on humans.

The Ji Mountain range begins at Mount Huizhu and ends at Mount Manqu, spanning nine peaks over 1,670 li. The mountain deities here all have human faces and bird-like bodies. For sacrifices, one must use animals with intact fur (of specific colors) and offer a piece of fine jade, with no need for refined rice as an offering.

The Central Third Classic records the Fu Mountain range, starting from Mount Ao’an (also written as "Xian"; "Fu" is pronounced "bei"). Its southern slopes abound in tufu jade, while the northern side yields ochre and gold. The mountain is guarded by a deity named Xun Chi and is renowned for producing exquisite jade (some say fine stone). To the north, one can glimpse forests along the Yellow River, where trees resemble qian and ju varieties (note: qian and ju are tree names of uncertain identity; qian is pronounced "qian"). A peculiar beast called Fuzhu roams here, resembling a white deer but with four horns. Its appearance heralds catastrophic floods.

Ten li further east lies Mount Qingyao, which serves as the celestial emperor’s secluded capital (a tranquil abode of the supreme deity). To the north, one can observe the winding bends of the Yellow River (which twists every thousand li), frequented by jianiao birds (unidentified; possibly a scribal error for ru, referring to mandarin ducks or swans). To the south lies Shanzhu (a small islet; shan is pronounced "chan"), said to be where Gun, Yu the Great’s father, underwent transformation (legends say Gun turned into a yellow bear at the Yu Abyss, yet this account claims it happened here—indicating divine beings can manifest in multiple places). The area teems with snails and parasitic wasps. It is governed by the deity Wu Luo (the character shen means "spirit"), who bears a human face with leopard-like markings, a slender waist, and gleaming white teeth (some texts say "head"). Golden rings adorn the ears (qu, a type of jewelry of uncertain design, pronounced "qu"), and its voice resembles the chime of jade (or at times, human speech).

This mountain is particularly suitable for women to inhabit. The Zhen River originates here, flowing north into the Yellow River. The mountain is home to a bird called the Peng (pronounced like "Yao"), which resembles a wild duck with a blue body, red eyes, and a red tail. Eating its flesh is said to aid fertility (the "light red" refers to its hue). There is also a grass called Xuncao (also known as Baocao), shaped like cogongrass with square stems, yellow flowers, and red fruit. Its roots resemble those of Ligusticum (a fragrant herb), and consuming it is believed to enhance one's beauty.

Ten li to the east lies Gui Mountain (pronounced "Wei"), where high-quality jujube trees grow, and the northern slopes yield fine Tufu jade. The Zhenghui River originates here, flowing north into the Yellow River. The river teems with flying fish that resemble piglets with red markings. Wearing their scales is said to protect against thunder and ward off weapons.

Another forty li east is Yisu Mountain, rich in metals and jade, with dense Manju trees (species unknown) covering its lower slopes. The Yongyong River (pronounced "Rong") originates here, flowing north into the Yellow River and yielding abundant yellow shells.

Twenty li further east stands He Mountain, where the soil is barren and vegetation scarce, but it produces abundant Yaobi jade. It is the convergence point of nine tributaries of the Yellow River (hence called "Jiudu"). The mountain has five major bends, and nine water sources merge here before flowing north into the Yellow River, which abounds with green jade. The benevolent god Taifeng ("Ji" meaning auspicious) presides over this area. He has a human form but a tiger's tail and prefers to dwell south of Fu Mountain, emitting light when he comes and goes. Taifeng can manipulate the Qi (vital energy) of heaven and earth (legend says his manifestations bring clouds and rain; in summer, sudden gales darken the sky near Fu Mountain, even causing the sage Kong Jia to lose his way, as recorded in The Annals of Lü Buwei).

The entire Fu Mountain range, spanning five peaks from Ao’an Mountain to He Mountain, stretches 440 li. Rituals to honor the three deities—Taifeng, Xun Chi, and Wu Luo—require sacrificing a ram (with its bones split, called "Fu") along with exquisite jade vessels. For the other two deities, a rooster is buried as an offering, accompanied by glutinous rice.

This passage comes from the fourth section of the "Classic of Mountains and Seas: Central Mountains," documenting the natural resources and exotic creatures found in a series of mountain ranges in the Central Plains region.

The first mountain of the Li Mountain (also known as Fox Mountain) range is called Deer Hoof Mountain. Its peaks are rich in jade, while its foothills abound in metal ores. The Sweetwater River originates here, flowing north into the Luo River, and its waters contain many ling stones (an unidentified type of rock, possibly written as "mudstone").

Fifty li to the west lies Support Pig Mountain, where ruan stones (a type of crystal-like rock, white with red veins) are plentiful. A peculiar beast dwells here, resembling a raccoon dog but with human-like eyes, called yin (pronounced "yin"). The Guo River originates here, flowing north into the Luo River, and its waters are rich in ruan stones (a type of jade found in water).

Another 120 li westward is Li Mountain. Its southern slopes are abundant in jade, while the northern slopes are covered in sou grass (madder). A fearsome beast roams here, resembling an ox with blue fur, its cry like a wailing infant—it devours humans and is named Xiqu. The Yongyong River flows south from here into the Yi River. Another creature, the jue, resembles an enraged dog with scaly skin and bristles like a wild boar.

Continuing 200 li west is Winnowing-Tail Mountain, where paper mulberry trees and tu stones are plentiful, along with abundant tufu jade. Another 250 li west is Perching Mountain, rich in jade on its peaks and copper ore at its base. The Taodiao River originates here, flowing north into the Luo River, its waters teeming with qian sheep. A peculiar tree grows here, resembling the ailanthus but with leaves like the phoenix tree, bearing pods—called you grass, it can be used to poison fish.

Another 200 li west is White Edge Mountain, rich in gold and jade deposits, with abundant realgar (a mineral) at its base. Two hundred li beyond lies Bear Ear Mountain (modern-day southern Shangluo County, Shaanxi), abundant in lacquer trees and palm trees. The Fuhao River flows west into the Luo River, its waters filled with crystal and giant salamanders. A grass resembling perilla with red flowers, called tingning, can also be used to poison fish.

Finally, 300 li west stands Strong Mountain, its peaks rich in patterned stones and its foothills dense with bamboo groves.

These records reveal the Central Plains' abundant mineral resources and the peculiar distribution of flora and fauna in ancient times. The mention of fish-poisoning plants and man-eating beasts reflects the early people's observations and imaginative interpretations of the natural world.

This passage comes from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), primarily describing the geographical features and natural products of a series of mountain ranges.

From Mount Luti to Mount Xuangu, there are nine mountains spanning 1,670 li. The mountain deities here all have human faces and animal bodies. For sacrificial rituals, a white rooster is offered, but no grains are required—instead, the rooster should be adorned with colorful garments.

Three hundred fifty li to the west lies Mount Huanju, where the Luo River originates, flowing northeast into the Xuangu River. The waters teem with creatures called machang (horse-intestines). These two mountains are situated between the Luo River.

The text then describes the Bo Mountain range: Mount Gouchuang (also called Mount Goulin) has no vegetation but many oddly shaped stones. The northern side of Mount Shoushan abounds with paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) and oak trees, while its grasses are mostly thistles (Cirsium) and yuanhua (Daphne genkwa). The southern side is rich in tufu jade, and its trees are predominantly locusts. To the north lies the Ji Valley, inhabited by diao birds, which resemble owls but have three eyes and ears. Their cry sounds like the word lu, and it is said that consuming them can cure dampness-related illnesses.

Further east is Mount Xianzhu, devoid of vegetation but filled with patterned stones. Mount Conglong also lacks plants but yields abundant yan stones. In Mount Tiaogu, the trees are mainly locusts and paulownias, while the grasses are mostly peonies and mendong (a medicinal herb). The northern side of Mount Chaoshan produces much dark jade, while its southern side has a well that fills in winter and dries in summer. Mount Chenghou is rich in chun wood (similar to the Ailanthus tree, used for cart shafts), and its grasses are mostly peng grass. The valleys of Mount Chaoge yield high-quality white clay, while those of Mount Huaishan are abundant in metals and tin ores.

Ten li to the east stands Mount Li, abundant with locust trees, its southern slopes yielding fine jade. Another ten li east lies Mount Yue, producing green jade where herds of jing (black deer-like creatures) roam. The Corpse River originates here, flowing south into the Luo River, its waters rich with superior jade.

Continuing east ten li brings one to Mount Liangyu, densely forested with paper mulberry and oak, devoid of ordinary stones. One stream flows north from its slopes into the Yellow River, while the Milk River emerges from the southern face, joining the Luo southeastward.

Ten li southeast rises Mount Guwei, famed for whetstones and red copper. The Dragon Surplus Water springs forth here, coursing southeast to the Luo. Twenty li northeast stands Mount Sheng, thick with paper mulberry, oak, and jujube trees, its meadows fragrant with yams and hui grass (an aromatic herb), alongside abundant koutuo plants (southern flora reaching ten feet tall, lotus-like leaves with white pith, cultivated by locals through daily watering). The Yellow Sour Water originates here, flowing north into the Yellow River, yielding xuan jade (a fine jade-like stone).

Twelve li further east lies Mount Yangxu, rich in metal ores, its foothills bordering the Dark Guardian River (legend holds Cangjie received the divine turtle’s script here). From Mount Goulin to Mount Yangxu spans sixteen peaks across 2,982 li. Among these, Mount Sheng is the principal peak, honored with the grand Tailao sacrifice (a triad of ox, pig, and sheep) adorned with precious jade. Mount Shou, the sacred peak, receives offerings of glutinous rice, black sacrificial animals, and Tailao, accompanied by malt-fermented wine, a thousand-person ritual dance with drumming, and a jade bi disc. The Corpse River, a holy conduit between heaven and earth, demands plump livestock for sacrifice—black dogs above, hens below, with ewe’s blood (a blood rite), all ornamented with exquisite jade.

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing) describes a series of mountain ranges in the sixth section of the Central Mountains. It begins with Mount Pingfeng, from which one can see the Yi and Luo Rivers to the south and Mount Gucheng to the east (located west of Gucheng County in Jibei; legend says the stone of Huangshi Gong lies beneath this mountain, which Zhang Liang retrieved for burial). The mountain is barren, with no vegetation or water sources, mostly sand and stone. It is inhabited by a deity named Jiaochong, who resembles a human but has two heads. He is the ruler of all poisonous creatures and the dwelling place of bees. To worship this deity, one must offer a live rooster in a rang ritual (a ceremony to expel malign forces) without slaughtering it.

Ten li west lies Mount Gaodi, also devoid of vegetation but rich in metals and jade. Another ten li west is Mount Gui (pronounced similarly to "gui"), where the northern slopes yield tufu jade. To its west is the Huangu Valley, home to willow and paper mulberry trees, as well as a bird called qianji, which resembles a pheasant but has a long tail, fiery red feathers, a blue beak, and a call that sounds like its own name. Eating its flesh is said to prevent nightmares. The Jiaoshang River flows from the southern side into the Luo River, while the Yusui River runs northward into the Gu River.

Thirty li further west is Mount Zhanzhu, abundant in metal deposits to the south and patterned stones (wen shi) to the north. The Xie River originates here, flowing southeast into the Luo River, while the Shao River emerges from the north and runs east into the Gu River. Another thirty li west is Mount Louzhuo, barren but rich in metals and jade. The Zhan River flows east from the south into the Luo River, while the Bei River (also called the Baida River) runs north into the Gu River, yielding zi stones and patterned stones.

Finally, forty li west is Mount Baishi. The Hui River flows south from its slopes into the Luo River, carrying abundant crystal. The Jian River (one of the four rivers—Yi, Luo, Chan, and Jian—mentioned in the Book of Documents) originates in the north, running northwest into the Gu River, where mi stones and lu dan (two types of minerals now obscure in meaning) are plentiful.

Fifty li to the west stands Gu Mountain, its summit covered with paper mulberry trees while its foothills abound with mulberry trees. The Shuang River originates here (locally known as the Ramie Ravine), flowing northwest into the Gu River, its waters rich with jade-green stones.

Seventy-two li further west lies Mi Mountain (modern-day Mi County in Xingyang also has a mountain by this name, though likely not the same one). The southern slopes yield abundant jade, while the northern side is rich in iron ore. The Hao River emerges here, flowing south into the Luo River, its waters teeming with spiral turtles—creatures with bird-like heads and turtle tails, whose cries resemble the sound of splitting wood. The mountain itself is entirely barren of vegetation.

Another hundred li westward brings one to Changshi Mountain, devoid of plants but abundant in metals and jade. To its west lies Gong Valley, thick with bamboo. The Gong River originates here, flowing southwest into the Luo River, its waters filled with "singing stones" (during the first year of the Yongkang era in the Jin Dynasty, Xiangyang Prefecture once presented these as tribute—bluish stones resembling jade that, when struck, produce sounds audible from seven or eight li away. Today, two sources of such stones exist in Yongzheng Township, Quanling County, Lingling, one shaped like a drum and commonly called the Stone Drum).

A hundred and forty li further west stands Fu Mountain, equally barren but rich in fine jasper. The Yanran River flows from its southern slope, emptying southward into the Luo River, its waters home to many mermaids. To the west lies a grove called Panzhong, where the Gu River originates, flowing east into the Luo River (today, the Gu River runs northeast from Guyang Valley before merging with the Luo at Gucheng County). Its waters once held abundant Yan jade (a type now lost to history).

Fifty li onward lies Tuo Mountain, dominated by ailanthus and bitterwood (a variety found in Shu, whose ears produce a salt-like powder in the seventh and eighth months, used to flavor vinegar soup). The southern slopes yield gold and jade, while the north is rich in iron and mugwort. The Tuo River emerges here, flowing north into the Yellow River, its waters filled with Xiubi fish—creatures resembling frogs but with white beaks, whose calls mimic owls. Consuming them is said to cure vitiligo.

Finally, ninety li west stands Changzheng Mountain, its bare slopes strewn with chalk. The Qiao River (pronounced like "qiao") flows east from here into the Yellow River, its waters rich with dark jade. Another tributary, the Zi River, runs north into the Yellow River.

Ninety li to the west stands Mount Kuafu, its slopes thick with palm trees, nanmu, and arrow bamboo. The mountain teems with wild oxen and antelopes, while crimson pheasants dominate its skies. Jade abounds on its southern face, while the northern slopes yield rich iron deposits. North of the mountain stretches a three-hundred-li peach forest (located in present-day Hongnong County's Quexiang South Valley, where wild horses, goats, and mountain cattle roam freely). A lake originates here, flowing north into the Yellow River, its waters yielding yan jade.

Another ninety li westward lies Mount Yanghua, its southern slopes rich in gold and jade, the northern veins heavy with blue orpiment. The mountain's vegetation consists chiefly of wild yams and bitter xin grass—the latter resembling catalpa in form but bearing melon-like fruits with sweet-sour flavor that cures malaria. The Yang River springs from here, flowing southwest into the Luo River where human-fish dwell. The Men River also originates here, coursing northeast to the Yellow River with its waters producing black whetstones. The Jiegu River ("Jie" pronounced like "ji") emerges from the northern slopes, joining the Men River eastward in this copper-rich region. From the Men River's source to its confluence with the Yellow River spans seven hundred ninety li before ultimately merging with the Luo River.

From Mount Pingfeng to Mount Yanghua stretches the Gaodi Mountain Range—fourteen peaks spanning seven hundred ninety li. Among them stands a principal peak where annual sacrifices are held in the sixth month (mid-year), performed with the same rituals as other principal peaks to ensure universal peace.

Next comes the Kushan Range recorded in the Middle Seventh Classic, beginning with Mount Xiuyu (also written "Xiu Yu"). Here grows the Divine Terrace Game Stones (named after the deity Di Tai, resembling quail eggs with multicolored patterns), used in sacrifices to all spirits (serving as ritual objects) and as talismans against gu poison. Another plant thrives here—red-leaved and clustered like yarrow—called suttiao, its stalks fashioned into arrow shafts.

Three hundred li east stands Mount Guzhong, where Di Tai once feasted all deities (hence its name meaning "Drum Bell"). The mountain grows square-stemmed herbs with round yellow leaves...

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records several sacred mountains and their marvelous flora and fauna:

Mount Guyao (with "yao" pronounced as "yáo") grows a plant called "black sour herb" with layered leaves that can be used to make antidotes. The mountain yields coarse whetstones, while its foothills produce fine grinding stones. Legend says the Heavenly Emperor's daughter died here and transformed into the "yao grass" (pronounced "yáo"), whose intertwined leaves bear yellow flowers and fruit resembling dodder seeds. Eating it enhances one's charm, hence its alternate names "alluring herb" or "husband-bewitching grass."

Mount Kushan harbors a beast called "mountain lard," resembling a piglet with flame-red fur that loves to curse. The mountain also hosts "yellow bramble" trees with round leaves, yellow blossoms, and orchid-like fruit that causes infertility when consumed. Another herb called "stemless" has circular leaves without stalks, bearing red flowers but no fruit—eating it prevents goiter.

Mount Dushan is governed by the mountain spirit Tianyu ("Heavenly Fool"), where strange winds and rains often occur. It grows "heavenly whip" trees (pronounced "biān") with square trunks and hollyhock-like leaves that prevent choking when eaten.

Mount Fanggao (also written as "Xiao" or "Mu") is the source of the Ming River, which flows south into the Yi River. Rich in green jade, it hosts "mist trees" with scholar-tree leaves and fruitless yellow blossoms that sharpen the mind when consumed. A peculiar creature called "patterned-patterned" resembles a bee with a forked tail and inverted tongue, fond of chirping.

Mount Daji abounds with jade varieties like "tufu" and "elk jade." The "ox wound" herb (resembling ox thorns) has elm-like leaves, square stems with blue veins, and blue-patterned roots—consumption treats rebellious qi and wards off weapon injuries. The Kuang River originates here, flowing southwest into the Yi River.

On Jun Mountain in Yangxian County of Wuxing, there is a pool containing a peculiar three-legged turtle (a turtle with three legs). This creature is called "Treasure Turtle" (Bao Gui) in the Erya lexicon. Eating its meat can prevent serious illnesses, particularly effective against swellings and edema.

Seventy li to the east stands Half-Stone Mountain, where a wondrous plant called "Jiarong" grows. This herb sprouts ears as soon as it emerges, growing over ten feet tall with red leaves and red flowers (the blossoms emerge directly from the ears). Those who consume it become fearless of thunder and lightning. On the southern slope flows the Laixu River, which runs westward into the Yi River. Its waters teem with "Lun fish" (pronounced "lún"), marked with black patterns and resembling crucian carp. Eating them prevents drowsiness. From the northern slope emerges the He River, flowing north into the Luo River, abundant with "Teng fish" (pronounced "téng"), shaped like mandarin fish. They dwell in underwater caves and tunnels, displaying blue patterns with red tails. Consuming them prevents toxic sores and cures fistulas.

Fifty li further east lies Shaoshi Mountain (modern-day west of Yangcheng in Henan, commonly called Taishi Mountain). Its slopes are lush with vegetation, including a divine tree named "Emperor's Rest" (Di Xiu), whose leaves resemble poplar leaves, with five-forked intertwining branches, yellow blossoms, and black fruit. Eating it brings peace to the heart. The summit yields abundant jade (legend speaks of a white jade ointment that grants immortality, though mortals cannot reach it). Below the mountain lie rich iron deposits. The Xiu River originates here, flowing north into the Luo River, where many "Ti fish" swim—shaped like an unknown primate species, with white webbed feet. Consuming them prevents parasitic infections and even wards off weapon injuries.

Another thirty li east brings travelers to the renowned Taishi Mountain (i.e., Mount Song, the Central Sacred Peak, located west of Yangcheng).

This passage describes a series of miraculous mountains and their unique products recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhai Jing). On these mountains grows a tree called Youmu, whose leaves resemble pear leaves but bear crimson veins. It is said that consuming them can dispel jealousy. There is also a plant named Yaocao, which bears white flowers and dark fruits as smooth as wild grapes—eating them keeps one clear-headed. The mountains also abound in exquisite jade (considered second only to the finest jade, and legend says it was here that the mother of Xia’s founder, Qi, transformed into stone while giving birth to him).

Thirty li to the north lies Mount Jiang, rich in jade, mulberry trees, and cypresses. There grows a tree called Diwu, whose leaves resemble those of the Sichuan pepper but have thorns, bearing red fruits that can ward off evil. Another thirty li north is Mount Yingliang, abundant in dark-green jade, often found embedded in black rocks (some believe "Chunyu" refers to a monkey-headed musical instrument).

Thirty li eastward stands Mount Fuxi, home to the Kangmu tree, whose leaves resemble the ailanthus but bear red fruits—consuming them prevents poisoning by venomous creatures. The Si River originates here, flowing north into the Yellow River. To the east lies the Valley of Snakes, named for its abundance of serpents and where fine medicinal herbs like Asarum (xi xin) grow. Forty li further east is Mount Shaoxing, where the Jicao plant thrives—its leaves resemble mallow, with red stems, white flowers, and grape-like fruits that enhance wisdom when eaten. The Qinan River flows from here north into the Yi River.

Ten li southeast stands Mount Tai (not to be confused with the Eastern Sacred Mountain, Mount Tai of Dongyue). Here grows the Li plant, whose leaves resemble mugwort with red flowers, useful for treating poisonous sores. The Tai River originates on the southern slope, flowing southeast into the Mo River, while the Cheng River rises on the northern slope, running northeast into the same Mo River (now called the Jingjian River). Finally, twenty li east lies Mount Mo, rich in red gold ore, with the Mo River flowing north into the Mo River.

Twenty-five li to the east lies Mount Yi, abundant in white gold and iron. The Yi River originates here, flowing north into the Yellow River.

Another thirty-five li east is Mount Min, where a tree resembling the chaste tree grows, bearing white flowers and red fruit, called Jibai (pronounced "ji"). Wearing its fruit makes one fearless of cold. The southern slopes of the mountain yield fine Tufu jade.

Continuing thirty li east is Mount Dagui (located in present-day Mi County, Rongyang, Henan, named after the Gui River that originates here). The northern side is rich in high-quality iron and blue earth (qing'e), while the southern slopes produce fine jade. A grass grows here resembling yarrow but covered in fine hairs, with blue flowers and white fruit, called Lang (pronounced "lang"). Consuming it grants longevity and cures abdominal ailments.

The entire Ku Mountain range stretches from Mount Xiuyu to Mount Dagui, encompassing nineteen peaks spanning 1,184 li. Sixteen of these mountains are inhabited by mountain spirits with boar bodies and human faces. In rituals, a whole sheep must be offered, accompanied by multicolored jade artifacts. Mount Ku, Mount Shaoshi, and Mount Taishi are the principal peaks, where sacrifices require the "three beasts" (ox, sheep, and pig) along with auspicious jade. The mountain spirits here have three heads and human faces, while the subordinate spirits retain boar bodies and human faces.

The Central Eighth Classic records that the first peak of the Jing Mountain range is Mount Jing (in present-day Hubei), rich in metals and jade, with trees dominated by spindlewood and sandalwood. The Ju River (pronounced "ju") originates here, flowing southeast into the Yangtze. Its waters teem with cinnabar and colorful carp.

A hundred li northeast lies Mount Jing (south of present-day Xincheng County, Hubei), where iron is found on the northern slopes and red gold on the southern side. The mountain is home to many black yaks (a type of long-haired ox native to the southwestern frontier regions).

The text describes the characteristics and products of several mountains:

The first mountain is abundant with leopards and tigers, where pine and cypress trees dominate the vegetation, along with bamboo and citrus plants (the "you" variety resembles oranges but is larger, with thick rinds and sour taste). The Zhang River originates here, flowing southeast into the Ju River (which rises from Jing Mountain and merges with the Ju River at Dangyang County in Nan Commandery). The waters are rich in gold and jiaoyu fish (resembling crucian carp but with pearl-patterned, tough skin, tails three to four feet long ending in venomous stingers—their skins were used to ornament swords). The mountain's beasts are mostly lümi deer (similar to regular deer but larger).

150 li northeast lies Jiao Mountain, yielding abundant jade on its peaks and qinghuang minerals below. Pine and cypress trees grow alongside taozhi and gouduan plants. This mountain is inhabited by the deity Tuowei (named after crocodilian creatures), who appears human but sports ram's horns and tiger claws. It dwells in the abysses of the Ju and Zhang rivers (abyss denoting deep waters), emitting light when emerging or submerging.

120 li further northeast stands Nüji Mountain, rich in jade atop its slopes and gold at its base. Its fauna includes leopards, tigers, lümi deer, jing deer, and ji (resembling river deer but larger). Bird species feature the white baigu (pheasant-like with long tails), di birds, and peng birds (eagle-sized with purple-green plumage, long crimson-beaked necks that prey on venomous snakes—males called yunri, females yinxie).

200 li beyond lies Yizhu Mountain, abundant in metals and jade above, qinghuang minerals below. The Gui River (pronounced "gui") originates here, flowing south into the Zhang River (modern Gui River rises from Donggui Mountain in Nan Commandery, entering the Yangtze at Huarong County), its waters teeming with white jade.

350 li northeast stands Lun Mountain (pronounced "lun"), where catalpa, nanmu, taozhi, zha (sour pear-like fruit), chestnut, orange, and you trees flourish. Its beasts include lü deer, chen deer, jing deer, and chuo (rabbit-like with deer legs and blue fur).

Finally, 200 li northeast stands Luqui Mountain (pronounced "gui"), yielding abundant tufu jade (a precious variety) atop and chalk deposits below. Its forests are dominated by niu and jiang trees.

One hundred and thirty li east from the original location lies Mount Guang, whose summit abounds in jasper while its foothills are densely forested. Here dwells the deity Jimeng, who has a human body and a dragon's head, often swimming in the deep pool called Zhangyuan. Whenever Jimeng emerges or submerges, he invariably brings violent storms and torrential rain.

Another hundred and fifty li further east stands Mount Qi. Its southern slopes are rich in red gold (a type of reddish metallic ore), while the northern slopes yield white min (a jade-like white stone). The mountain teems with gold, silver, jade, and precious stones, and its base is abundant in qinghu (a bluish mineral). The trees here are predominantly ailanthus, and the resident deity, Shetuo, possesses a human body, a square face, and three legs.

Continuing eastward for a hundred and thirty li is Mount Tong, rich in gold, silver, and iron ores. The vegetation consists mainly of paper mulberry, oak, hawthorn, chestnut, tangerine, and pomelo trees. Among the wild beasts, leopards are the most common.

Turning northeast for a hundred li brings one to Mount Mei, where the wildlife consists mostly of rhinoceroses, wild oxen, elk, and boars. The mountain yields abundant gold, while its foothills are rich in qinghu.

Another hundred li northeast lies Mount Dayao, where the trees are primarily pine, cypress, catalpa, mulberry, and alder, with bamboo dominating the undergrowth. The beasts here are chiefly leopards, tigers, and antelopes.

Three hundred li further northeast stands Mount Ling, its heights rich in gold, silver, jade, and precious stones, while its lower slopes abound in qinghu. The trees are mostly peach, plum, apricot, and almond.

Seventy li northeast is Mount Long, where parasitic plants (also called wantong) flourish, and jasper is plentiful. The foothills are rich in red tin ore, and the grasses are mainly taozhi bamboo and goudan bamboo.

Turning southeast for fifty li brings one to Mount Heng, abundant in parasitic plants, paper mulberry, and oak trees, as well as yellow and white chalk (a type of clay).

Another seventy li southeast is Mount Shi, rich in gold deposits, with qinghu and parasitic plants covering its lower slopes.

A hundred and twenty li to the south lies Mount Ruo (also called Mount Qian), renowned for its tufu jade (a fine jade), red ocher, and gui stones (of uncertain nature), along with abundant parasitic plants and mulberry trees.

A hundred and twenty li southeast is Mount Zhi, famous for its beautiful stones and mulberry trees.

Another hundred and fifty li southeast stands Mount Yu, its heights rich in gold, silver, jade, and precious stones, while its base yields jasper and iron ore. The trees here are predominantly cypress.

Finally, seventy li southeast is Mount Huan, where sandalwood trees dominate, and gui stones and white tin (an alloy of tin) are abundant. The Yu River originates from the mountain's peak, flowing underground to its base, where its waters yield many whetstones (di and li).

One hundred and fifty li to the northeast stands Mount Renju. The mountain is covered with paper mulberry and oak trees. Its southern slopes are rich in red gold (a type of reddish metallic ore), while the northern side abounds in ochre (a red mineral pigment).

Fifty li further east lies Mount Shimei. The southern slopes produce whetstones (for sharpening blades), and the northern side is abundant in qinghu (a blue mineral). The trees here are predominantly cypress, sandalwood, and oak, with bamboo growing thickly in the grassy undergrowth.

Two hundred li to the southeast brings one to Mount Qinggu, where paper mulberry, oak, and prickly ash trees grow in profusion (the dwarf prickly ash bushes poison surrounding vegetation with their toxicity). The mountaintop yields abundant white min jade (a type of beautiful stone), while its foothills produce plentiful washing stones (used for cleaning). Wild boars, deer, and white rhinoceroses dominate the fauna, with venomous zhen birds being the most common avian species.

The entire Jing Mountain range stretches from Mount Jing to Mount Qinggu, comprising twenty-three peaks across 2,890 li. The mountain deities here all manifest with bird bodies and human faces. For sacrificial rites, a rooster is buried alive (the yi ritual) along with carved jade tablets (ornamented gui) and refined rice (xu) as offerings. As the principal peak, Mount Jiao requires more elaborate ceremonies - fine wine, the shaolao sacrifice (sheep and pig offerings), and the burial of jade ornaments wrapped in animal fur along with a jade bi disk.

The "Middle Ninth Classic" records the Min Mountain range beginning at Mount Nüji, known for its graphite deposits (shinie), with wild chrysanthemums growing thickly among the trees of bastard boxthorn and evergreen oak. The Luo River originates here, flowing east into the Yangtze, its waters teeming with realgar (a medicinal mineral). Tigers and leopards dominate the mountain's predator population.

Three hundred li northeast stands Mount Min (modern-day Guangyang County west of Wenshan Commandery in Sichuan), source of the Yangtze River which flows northeast to the sea. Its waters abound in premium turtles and Yangtze alligators (tuo, large reptiles whose hides make drums). The mountains conceal rich deposits of gold and jade, while white min jade litters the foothills. Plum and crabapple trees dominate the flora, with rhinoceroses, elephants, and kuiniu (Sichuan's massive wild oxen weighing thousands of jin) roaming the slopes. White pheasants and red junglefowl are the characteristic birds.

One hundred forty li further northeast rises Mount Xia (modern-day Qionglai Mountains), where another branch of the Yangtze finds its source.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records the characteristics and products of several mountains:

South of Yandao County in Hanjia Commandery lies the source of the Yangtze River. The mountain has winding paths with nine bends and eighteen turns and produces an animal called Mobo, which resembles a bear but has black-and-white fur and can consume copper and iron. The river flows east into the Yangtze. The southern side of the mountain yields abundant gold, while the northern side is rich in elk. The dominant trees are sandalwood and mulberry, and the vegetation includes plenty of shallots, leeks, and medicinal herbs like shed snake skins.

One hundred and fifty li to the east stands Mount Ju (pronounced "Ju"), the source of the North River. The river is home to many strange snakes (today, in Yongchang Commandery, there exists a hook snake several zhang long, with a forked tail that can snatch people and livestock from the shore) and a creature called the Zhi fish. The mountain abounds in hardwoods like you and niu (the you wood is sturdy and suitable for making axles), as well as plum and catalpa trees. Among its beasts are kui oxen, antelopes, and rhinoceroses. There is also a bird resembling an owl but with a red body and white head, called Qiezhi (today, small green finches are called Qiezhi, though they may not be the same species), said to ward off fires.

Three hundred li further east lies Mount Gaoliang, rich in chalk at its summit and whetstones at its base. The trees are mostly taozhi and gouduan bamboos. A certain herb resembles mallow but bears red flowers and white fruit, said to make horses run faster.

Four hundred li east is Mount She, abundant in gold and chalk. The dominant trees are xun and camphor, while the vegetation includes jiarong and shaoxin. A beast called Langlang resembles a fox but has a white tail and long ears—its appearance foretells war in the land.

Five hundred li east stands Mount Ge, with rich metal deposits to the south and white jade-like stone (minyu) to the north. The Puhe River originates here, flowing east into the Yangtze, its waters yielding much white jade. The beasts include rhinoceroses, elephants, bears, and monkeys (among them is the Wei monkey, with upturned nostrils and a tail four to five chi long; when it rains, it plugs its nostrils with its tail or fingers).

Three hundred li northeast lies Mount Yuyang, rich in gold and jade...

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas records the characteristics and sacrificial customs of several mountains. First described is a mountain with abundant blue minerals at its base, where catalpa and mulberry trees dominate the vegetation, and purple grass is plentiful. The Xu River originates here, flowing eastward into the Yangtze, its waters rich in red sand.

Two hundred and fifty li to the east lies Qishan (located west of present-day Fufeng County, Shaanxi), where white minerals abound on the mountain, and the primary vegetation is the auspicious jiarong grass. Another one hundred and seventy li east is Jiachao Mountain, with yellow chalk deposits on its southern slopes and high-quality red ocher on the northern side. The trees here are primarily wild pear, chestnut, orange, and pomelo, along with dragon-beard grass (resembling but finer than sedge, growing in rock crevices with drooping stems used for weaving mats).

From Nüji Mountain to Jiachao Mountain, there are sixteen mountains spanning three thousand five hundred li. The mountain deities here all have horse bodies and dragon heads. In sacrifices, a rooster is buried in the earth, and polished rice is offered. Wenshan, Gouni Mountain, and Fengyu Chou Mountain are particularly sacred; their rituals involve first presenting wine, followed by the shaolao sacrifice (sheep and pig) accompanied by colored silks and auspicious jade. Xiong Mountain serves as the dwelling place of the mountain deities, requiring wine, the tailao sacrifice (ox, sheep, and pig), and jade discs for offerings. Additionally, shield dances are performed to ward off evil, and jade-crowned blessing dances are enacted.

Another section records Shouyang Mountain (in present-day Weiyuan County, Gansu), the first peak in the Central Ten Classics, which is rich in gold and jade but barren of vegetation. Fifty li west lies Huwei Mountain, where pepper trees and ju trees dominate, and fengshi stone is abundant. The southern slopes yield much red gold, while the northern slopes are rich in iron ore. Fifty li southwest is Fanhui Mountain ("hui" pronounced as "kui"), where you and niu trees thrive, and zhigou grass is the primary vegetation. Another twenty li southwest is Yongshi Mountain, devoid of plants but abundant in white gold and water sources. Twenty li west lies Fuzhou Mountain, densely covered with sandalwood trees, with gold deposits on its southern slopes. A peculiar bird called qizhong inhabits this area—resembling an owl but with only one foot and a pig’s tail. Its appearance foretells the outbreak of a great epidemic in the land.

Thirty li to the west lies Chushan, a mountain covered with parasitic trees (plants that grow attached to other trees), abundant in both Chinese prickly ash and medicinal quince trees, as well as many cudrania trees (of the mulberry family). This mountain is also known as Eshan (alternatively called Zhushan or Zhoushan).

Another twenty li westward stands Youyuan Mountain, where the southern slopes yield abundant blue mineral pigments while the northern slopes are rich in iron ore. The predominant bird species here is the myna (also known as the crested mynah).

Continuing fifty li west is Zhuoshan, where paper mulberry and oak trees flourish, with the southern slopes producing the prized Tufu jade. Seventy li further west on Bingshan, catalpa and sandalwood trees dominate, along with an unidentified tree species called Shenniu.

From Shouyang Mountain to Bingshan, this nine-mountain range spans 267 li. The mountain deities here all manifest with dragon bodies and human faces. For their worship, a rooster with its feathers intact is buried as a sacrificial offering, accompanied by offerings of the five grains. Chushan serves as the primary mountain, requiring the "Shao Lao" sacrifice (a combination of sheep and pig), fine wine, and the burial of jade discs along with possibly infant hair or another ritual item called Yingmao. Guishan, being an imperial mountain, demands the "Tai Lao" sacrifice (ox, sheep, and pig), with two shamans performing ritual dances and the burial of a jade disc.

The eleventh central mountain range begins with Jingshan's subsidiary Yiwang Mountain, source of the Tuan River (in modern Nanyang, Henan), which flows east into the Ji River. The Kuang River also originates here, flowing southeast into the Han River, its waters teeming with jiaolong (serpentine creatures resembling snakes but with four legs, small heads and slender necks - larger specimens can swallow humans). The mountains abound with pine and cypress, while the foothills flourish with lacquer and catalpa trees. The southern slopes contain rich copper deposits, while the northern slopes yield plentiful min stones (jade-like ornamental rocks).

One hundred fifty li northeast lies Chaoge Mountain (in modern Wuyang County, Henan), where the Wu River originates and flows southeast into the Rong River, its waters inhabited by many "human fish" (likely giant salamanders). The mountain grows abundant catalpa and nanmu trees, with antelope and elk being the dominant wildlife. Poisonous mang grass grows here, traditionally used for fish poisoning.

Two hundred li southeast stands Diqun Mountain (pronounced "qūn"), its southern slopes yielding Tufu jade while the north contains iron deposits. The Diqun River emerges from the summit only to disappear underground, its vicinity inhabited by numerous "singing snakes" (legendary serpents known for their cries). Fifty li further southeast is Shishan, where wild leeks proliferate across the slopes, and within the mountain lies a well...

These passages from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing) document the unique resources and extraordinary creatures found in several mountains:

Tianjing Mountain has water in summer but dries up in winter. Its slopes are covered with mulberry trees and rich deposits of high-quality white clay (e), along with gold, silver, jade, and precious stones.

Two hundred li southeast lies Qian Mountain, where the forests are dominated by evergreen oaks (similar to oak trees, bearing edible nuts with wood hard enough for building pillars), interspersed with numerous cypresses. Gold deposits abound on its southern slopes, while the northern side yields abundant red ochre.

Another three hundred li southeast stands Feng Mountain, home to a strange beast resembling an ape with red eyes, a crimson mouth, and yellow fur, named Yonghe. Its appearance heralds great panic in the realm. The mountain is also inhabited by a deity called Gengfu, who frequents the Qingling Abyss (located in Xijiao County) and emits radiant light when coming and going. Nine bronze bells hang here, ringing spontaneously when frost descends. The mountain is rich in gold deposits, while its foothills teem with paper mulberry, oak, wild jujube, and evergreen oak trees.

Eight hundred li northeast lies Tuchuang Mountain, where iron ore is plentiful on its southern slopes. The vegetation consists mainly of yam plants, along with a peculiar grass called Golden Rooster Valley, whose roots resemble eggs with a sweet-sour flavor—consumption brings health benefits.

Sixty li east, Pishan Mountain yields abundant white clay and ochre, with pine and cypress dominating its forests. Another sixty li east, Yaobi Mountain grows many catalpa and nanmu trees, with blue-green mineral deposits on its northern side and white gold on the southern slopes. Here dwells a pheasant-like bird that feeds exclusively on tiny flying insects (fei), named Zhen (note: this is distinct from the legendary poisonous bird of the same name).

Forty li further east, Zhili Mountain marks the source of the Ji River, which flows south into the Han River. A bird called Yingshao inhabits these heights—resembling a magpie with red eyes, a crimson beak, white plumage, and a wine-dipper shaped tail, its call sounds like its own name. The area also abounds in zuo cattle and qian sheep.

Finally, fifty li northeast stands Zhiyu Mountain, covered with pines and cypresses. A peculiar tree called Jihuan grows here—its leaves resemble those of the Chinese hackberry, bearing hard-shelled fruits used as incense. When steeped in wine, its bark repels malign influences; when used for laundry, it removes stubborn stains.

One hundred li to the northwest lies Jinli Mountain, densely covered with pine and cypress trees along with beautiful catalpa. The northern slopes yield abundant cinnabar pigments and metal ores. The mountain's beasts are mostly leopards and tigers, while among its birds there is one resembling a magpie with a blue-green body, white beak, eyes and tail, called the Qinggeng bird. It is said to ward off plagues, and its cry sounds like its own name.

Thirty li southeast stands Yiku Mountain (pronounced "ku"), covered with wild jujube and evergreen oak trees, along with an unidentified plant called "ju." Here dwells a beast resembling a dog but with tiger claws and scaly armor, named Lin (meaning "scaled," pronounced "lin"). It excels at leaping and pouncing, and consuming its meat makes one immune to strong winds.

Another thirty-five li southeast lies Jigu Mountain, abundant in fine jade and black leopards, as well as mountain donkeys, elk, and antelope. Its southern slopes produce plentiful min jade (a beautiful jade variety), while the northern slopes yield blue mineral pigments.

Forty li further southeast is Ji Mountain, thick with superior catalpa and mulberry trees, its grasses dominated by chives. Fifty li southeast stands Gaoqian Mountain, where an exceptionally cold, clear spring flows - said to be the immortal Emperor Tai's jade nectar (similar underground springs exist today on Tanshou Mountain south of Xie County in Hedong, locally called "overflowing liquid"). Drinking it prevents heart pain. The mountain yields gold, while its base contains abundant ochre minerals.

Thirty li southeast lies Youxi Mountain, rich in wild jujube, evergreen oak, and paper mulberry trees, producing abundant jade and feng stone (a mineral). Another thirty-five li brings one to Cong Mountain, its peaks covered in pine and cypress groves, its foothills dense with bamboo. The Cong River originates at the summit, flowing underground to the base where three-legged turtles (scientific name "Neng," recorded in Erya) dwell with forked tails - eating them prevents poison and pestilence.

Thirty li further southeast stands Yingzhen Mountain (pronounced "zhen"), its heights lush with pine and cypress, its lower slopes thick with catalpa and toon trees. Another thirty li reaches Bi Mountain, where the Emperor's Garden River originates, flowing northeast into the Shi River. Its waters contain abundant crystal and flood dragons, while the mountain yields plentiful tufu jade (a precious jade variety).

Finally, twenty li southeast stands Lema Mountain, where dwells a certain beast...

This passage describes a series of mountains and their geographical features as recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing). Twenty-five li to the southeast lies Zhen Mountain, where the Shi River originates (some texts suggest it should be called Qin River, identified with the present-day Qin River in Nanyang). It flows southeast into the Ru River, teeming with mermaids, flood dragons, and a creature called "Xie" that resembles a blue dog.

Forty li east stands Ying Mountain, with abundant qinghu minerals (a type of ore) at its base and plentiful gold and jade on its slopes. Thirty li further east is Hushou Mountain, covered with plants called "juchouju" (the exact form of "chou" remains unclear). Another twenty li east brings us to Yinghou Mountain, rich in sealing stones on its summit and red tin deposits below.

Fifty li eastward lies Dashu Mountain, where the Sha River originates, flowing northeast into the Shi River with abundant white chalk in its waters. Forty li further east is Bei Mountain, densely forested with peach, plum, ju, and catalpa trees, along with vines called "lei" (similar to modern hyacinth beans or lablab beans).

Thirty li east stands Yidi Mountain, jade-rich at its peak and gold-laden at its base. Here dwells a peculiar beast resembling a fei rat (thirteen rat species are recorded in the Erya dictionary, though this particular form remains unidentified), with white ears and mouth, named "juru." Its appearance foretells great wars in the realm.

Another thirty li east brings us to Ni Mountain, where the Ni River emerges before disappearing underground. Its waters contain fine white chalk, while the mountain yields gold above and qinghu minerals below. Thirty li further east is Ya Mountain, source of the Li River (modern-day Nanyang's Li River) that flows east into the Shi River, abundant with large fish. The mountain grows excellent mulberry trees above and ju trees with red gold below.

Finally, fifty li east stands Xuan Mountain, where the Lun River originates, flowing southeast into the Shi River with numerous flood dragons. Here grows an enormous mulberry tree with a trunk fifty chi thick (about five zhang), its branches stretching in all directions. The leaves measure over one chi long with red veins, bearing yellow flowers and green calyxes, famously called the "Mulberry of the Imperial Maiden" (named after a legendary female ruler).

Forty-five li east of Mount Heng (modern-day Nanyue Hengshan in Hunan, locally called Goulou Mountain) lies another Mount Heng. This mountain abounds with dark bluish stones and mulberry trees, with mynah birds being the predominant avian species.

Forty li further east stands Feng Mountain, rich in medicinal ore deposits called "sealing stones." Mulberry trees dominate its forests, alongside abundant yangtao (Actinidia chinensis, also called "ghost peach") - a plant resembling peach trees but with square stems, used to treat skin swellings.

Seventy li eastward lies Yu Mountain, yielding fine jade in its heights and abundant metal ores below. The predominant herb here is jigu (a medicinal plant).

Thirty li east appears Xian Mountain, where trees are chiefly oak (Quercus), hackberry (Celtis), and zhu trees, with men-dong grass (Ophiopogon japonicus) covering its slopes. Gold deposits concentrate on its southern face while iron ores dominate the north. A peculiar beast resembling the mythical creature "mo" dwells here - red-mouthed, red-eyed with a white tail, its appearance heralds wildfires, hence named "Yi-ji" (pronounced "yi").

Another thirty li east stands Zhang Mountain (also called Tong Mountain), its southern slopes gold-rich and northern face bearing beautiful stones. The Gao River originates here, flowing east into the Li River, its waters yielding abundant "gui stones" (unidentified mineral, pronounced "gui").

Twenty-five li east lies Dazhi Mountain with gold deposits on its southern face, dominated by paper mulberry (Broussonetia) and oak (Quercus) trees but devoid of grasses.

Fifty li further east is Quwu Mountain with abundant zhu trees, followed by another fifty li to Shengxiong Mountain where paper mulberries thrive amidst jade and sealing stones.

Another fifty li brings us to Da Gui Mountain (possibly sharing its name with earlier peaks), rich in red gold (copper) southward and whetstones northward.

Ten li east stands Zhongjiu Mountain, completely barren. Seventy li northeast lies Lishi Mountain (also called Mashi - "Whetstone Mountain"), where brambles and willows grow amidst southern gold deposits and northern whetstones. A wildcat-like beast with white head and tiger claws named Liangqu inhabits here - its appearance portends great wars in the realm.

One hundred li southeast stands Qiu Mountain where the Qiu River originates before disappearing underground, yielding fine ocher pigments. Zhu trees and fine bamboos (Mengzhu species) flourish here with gold deposits south and iron ores north.

Two hundred li further east rises Chouyang Mountain, abundant in evergreen oak (Cyclobalanopsis) and ju trees...

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas records the characteristics and products of several mountains:

There is a bird resembling a crow but with red feet called "Zhiyu" (pronounced similarly to "zhi" or "ju"), which can ward off fire.

Three hundred li to the east stands Mount Ao, abundant with cypress, catalpa, and sandalwood trees. Its southern slopes are rich in Tufu jade. The Ao River originates here, flowing eastward into the Shi River.

Thirty-five li further east lies Mount Fu, dominated by oak trees. The mountain yields plentiful Feng stone, while its foothills contain rich deposits of red tin ore.

Three hundred li further east is Mount Yao, where Jiaong grass grows profusely, and gold and jade deposits are abundant.

Three hundred and fifty li to the east stands Mount Ji, primarily covered with oak and sandalwood trees, with Niu grass being the most common vegetation. Here resides a beast resembling a pig, with a yellow body, white head, and white tail, named "Wenlin" (pronounced similarly to "lin"). When this creature appears, great winds sweep across the land.

From Mount Yiwang to Mount Ji, there are forty-eight mountains spanning 3,732 li. The mountain deities here all have pig bodies and human heads. For sacrifices, one should use a rooster, bury a jade tablet, and offer the Five Grains. To petition the mountain deities, one must prepare the Taolao sacrifice (complete offerings of ox, sheep, and pig), bury the offerings upside down, and include a jade disc. Mount Du and Mount Yu are the most revered among these mountains—their sacrifices require inverted offerings of Shaolao (sheep and pig) accompanied by auspicious jade.

The first mountain in the Dongting mountain range is called Mount Pianyu (also known as Mount Jian), devoid of vegetation but rich in gold.

Fifty li southeast stands Mount Yun, also barren of plants but home to highly toxic Gui bamboo—contact with which is fatal (Note: The Gui bamboo from Shixing Commandery's Guiyang region could grow as thick as two chi and four zhang long. Jiaozhi also produced another variety called Di bamboo, whose hard and sharp core could kill tigers when coated with poison). The mountain abounds in gold, while its foothills yield abundant Tufu jade.

One hundred and thirty li southeast lies Mount Gui, growing paper mulberry, oak, Dongqing holly, and Ju trees. The mountain is rich in gold, while its base produces plentiful blue orpiment and Fu bamboo (also called Qiong bamboo, with high joints and solid cores, used to make walking sticks known as "elder-support bamboo").

Seventy li further east is Mount Bing, containing much Gui bamboo and gold deposits, along with copper and iron ores, but no trees.

Fifty li to the southeast stands Mount Fengbo, abundant with metals and jade on its peaks, while its foothills yield ample sour stones (exact meaning unclear), ornamental stones, and rich iron deposits. The mountain's forests are dominated by willow, catalpa, sandalwood, and paper mulberry trees. To its east lies the Mangfu Forest, a woodland of precious trees teeming with rare birds and exotic beasts.

Another hundred and fifty li eastward rises Mount Fufu, its summit laden with gold and its base rich in realgar (a mineral). Here flourish mulberry and paper mulberry trees amidst thickets of bamboo partridge grass and drum grass. This realm is home to the deity Yuer, who bears a human form perpetually grasping two snakes. He roams the river's abysses, his body radiating light during his comings and goings.

Continuing southeast for one hundred twenty li brings travelers to Mount Dongting (located west of present-day Baling County in Changsha, where Dongting Lake connects with the Yangtze's underground currents. Qu Yuan's verses in "Li Sao"—"turning toward Dongting" and "Dongting's waves surge as leaves fall"—both reference this site). The mountain's heights hold abundant gold, while silver and iron deposits fill its lower slopes. Quince, tangerine, and pomelo trees blanket its slopes, where orchid grass, ligusticum, peony, and Sichuan lovage (ligusticum being a fragrant herb resembling cnidium) grow in profusion. This is the dwelling place of the Heavenly Emperor's two daughters (known in "Biographies of Immortals" as the Jiangfei sisters, addressed as "Lady of Xiang" and "Heavenly Princess" in the "Nine Songs." Their identity remains debated: "Jade Tablet of the River Chart" identifies them as Emperor Yao's daughters; Qin Shi Huang's court scholars, during a stormy river crossing, explained Xiangjun was Emperor Shun's consort; "Biographies of Exemplary Women" records their deaths in the Xiang River region where locals venerated them as Xiangjun. However, the "Nine Songs" clearly treats Xiangjun and Lady Xiang as distinct deities—like the Luo River's Fufei—as nature spirits rather than historical figures).

This passage records the legends of Emperor Shun and his two consorts (Ehuang and Nüying), along with descriptions of the geographical features and wondrous phenomena in the Xiang River region.

Regarding Emperor Shun's burial at Mount Cangwu, the text clarifies that his two consorts were not interred with him. This reflects the Daoist principle (Dao) that they neither accompanied him on military campaigns in life nor followed him in death—a practice aligned with righteousness (De). Even if they had followed Shun, given their divine wisdom attuned to heavenly principles—having once saved him from the well-and-barn crisis using feathered garments and dragon-patterned robes—how could they possibly have drowned helplessly in the Xiang River's storms?

Ancient rites dictated that those ranked as senior dukes in life became honored spirits (Shen) after death. The mountain deities of the Five Peaks held status equivalent to the Three Dukes, while the river gods of the Four Great Rivers (Yangtze, Yellow River, Huai, and Ji) ranked as feudal lords. Yet the Xiang River, inferior to these Four Rivers, wasn't included in standard sacrifices. As imperial consorts who shared divine status, how could these goddesses be demoted to minor spirits of the Xiang River? Such misconceptions confuse names with reality—a lamentable case of persistent errors remaining uncorrected.

The text further describes the mystical scenes along the Xiang River: the two goddesses often wandered its depths, their presence stirring converging storms across the Three Rivers (Yangtze, Xiang, and Yuan), with the Li River joining nearby. This area lies within the Nine Tributaries region (south of modern Xunyang), where the goddesses' movements invariably brought tempests. Here dwelled serpent-bodied deities with human faces clutching snakes in both hands, alongside flocks of extraordinary birds.

180 li southeast stands Mount Bao, abundant with palm trees, nanmu, thorns, and arrow bamboo, rich in gold and fine jade, while its foothills yield patterned stones and iron ore. The mountain shelters milu deer, muntjacs, and eagles among its fauna.

200 li further southeast lies Mount Jigong, teeming with gold and the prized tufu jade, where willow, niu, sandalwood, and mulberry trees flourish. Here resides a peculiar beast...

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas records a series of geographical features of mountain ranges and their associated sacrificial rituals. First, several peculiar creatures are mentioned: there is a turtle-like animal with a white body and red head called "guǐ" (pronounced like "guǐ"), said to be capable of warding off fires.

The text then describes the distribution of resources across several mountains: 159 li to the southeast is Yao Mountain, where the northern slopes are rich in yellow chalk (a type of white earth), while the southern slopes abound in gold. The vegetation consists mainly of brambles, wolfberries, willows, and sandalwood, with yams being the predominant herb. Another 100 li southeast lies Jiangfu Mountain, abundant in silver deposits and whetstones, devoid of vegetation, and inhabited mostly by wild boars and deer.

200 li to the east is Zhenling Mountain, with plentiful gold deposits on its peaks and jade at its base. The trees here include paper mulberries, oaks, willows, and elms, while the predominant herbs are rong grass. 120 li southeast is Yangdi Mountain, known for its high-quality copper deposits, with sandalwood, elms, mountain mulberries, and paper mulberries as the main trees, and antelopes and musk deer as the primary wildlife.

90 li south is Chaisang Mountain (located south of present-day Chaisang District in Jiujiang, connected to Mount Lu), rich in silver deposits, with jasper, cold stones, and ochre at its base. The vegetation consists mainly of willows, wolfberries, paper mulberries, and mulberry trees, while the wildlife includes elk, along with many white snakes and flying serpents (referring to the mythical teng snakes capable of soaring through clouds). 230 li southeast is Rongyu Mountain, abundant in copper deposits with silver deposits at its base, where willows and wolfberries dominate the flora, and strange snakes and insects are numerous.

From Pianyue Mountain to Rongyu Mountain, there are fifteen mountains spanning 2,800 li. The mountain deities of these peaks all have bird bodies with dragon heads. In sacrifices, a rooster and a sow are used, with the offerings pricked and glutinous rice employed as sacrificial items. Among them, Fufu Mountain, Jigong Mountain, Yao Mountain, and Yangdi Mountain are particularly significant. For their rituals, livestock and jade artifacts are displayed before being buried, accompanied by wine prayers, using the "shao lao" sacrifice (a sheep and a pig). The sacrifices at Dongting Mountain and Rongyu Mountain are even more elaborate, requiring the "tai lao" sacrifice (an ox, sheep, and pig) along with jade artifacts such as gui and bi tablets, all adorned with five colors.

Finally, the text summarizes that the Central Mountains Classic records a total of 197 mountains spanning 21,371 li. Across the world, there are 5,370 famous mountains distributed throughout the land, totaling 64,056 li. These records reflect the ancient people's systematic understanding of geography and their primitive religious sacrificial customs.

Yu the Great said: There are 5,370 famous mountains across the land, distributed over 64,056 li. Among these, the five most important mountains (the Five Treasured Mountains) are particularly beneficial to people's livelihood, while the remaining minor mountains are too numerous to record individually. The distance between heaven and earth spans 28,000 li east to west and 26,000 li north to south. Within this expanse, there are 8,000 li of mountain ranges containing water sources and another 8,000 li capable of storing water. There are 467 mountains yielding copper and 3,690 producing iron. These mountains demarcate the boundaries of heaven and earth, serve as fields for growing the Five Grains, and provide materials for crafting weapons (spears, halberds, and blades). The capable enjoy abundant resources while the inept face scarcity. In ancient times, seventy-two sovereigns performed the Fengshan sacrifices - offering to heaven at Mount Tai (Taishan) and to earth at Mount Liangfu. The principles of their governance successes and failures are all reflected in these mountain resources, which form the economic foundation of states (as also recorded in the Guanzi's "Discourse on Earth Numbers" chapter regarding the seventy-two Fengshan-performing monarchs).

The above constitutes the content of the five chapters of the "Classic of the Five Treasured Mountains," totaling 15,503 characters.

The Peach Forest Gorge lies in the frontier wilderness, where King Wu of Zhou pastured oxen and horses after conquering the Shang. Mount Santu serves as a natural strategic barrier, while the Western Xia region is also renowned for its formidable terrain.

Resonant stones share origins with metal, containing latent sound potential. When struck, they produce thunderous reports that carry great distances. By mastering their use, one may commune with the qi (vital energy) of heaven and earth.

The whirling turtle's cry resembles wood splitting; the xiupi (a frog-like creature) calls like an owl; while the human-fish (salamander) inhabits the Luo and Yi river basins.

On Mount Dital, multicolored stone game boards are used for ceremonial wine feasts (libation rituals) honoring the hundred spirits, harmonizing the qi of heaven and earth.

The fruit of malaria-curing grass resembles melons; crow-sour grass has triple-layered leaves with yellow flowers, producing poisons even venomous snakes (yuan serpents) fear.

Yao grass bears yellow blossoms with fruits like dodder seeds. When worn by noble persons, it enhances their charm. Legend says this plant transformed from a Celestial Emperor's daughter, its mysteries beyond ordinary comprehension.

The mountain-fat beast resembles a boar with an abusive temperament; yellow bramble constitutes its diet - a plant that neither fruits nor flowers. Though lacking chaste virtue, its nature follows the same principle as unwed women.

Three-legged turtles demonstrate the Creator's fairness: missing one limb doesn't constitute deformity, nor does an extra limb indicate excess. Fundamentally, they share the same essence as ordinary turtles (softshell and hard-shell varieties).

Thunder represents heaven's refined essence, capable of shaking human hearts. What counters it? Consuming jiarong herb. This stabilizes the shen (spirit) through gastrointestinal action.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records numerous extraordinary flora, fauna, and deities:

There exists a Qi (vital energy)-stabilizing divine beast called "Niu Shang," shaped like a wasp with a forked tail and a reversible tongue. The "Teng Fish" bears blue-green patterns and dwells in interconnected caves.

The "Di Xiu Tree" has interlacing branches and an upright trunk, growing on Mount Shaoshi. Noble individuals who consume its fruit can pacify anger and cultivate benevolence.

Mount Song, chief among the Five Sacred Peaks (alongside Hua, Tai, Heng, and Hengshan), connects with celestial energy as its divine presence comprehends Yin-Yang. Towering magnificently, it stands peerless among mountains.

The "You Mu" is an auspicious tree—wearing its gathered leaves and branches fosters household harmony and marital affection. "Wei Cao" has red stems and grape-like berries; consuming them enhances wisdom.

The "He Bird" exemplifies valor, risking its life to aid fellow birds under attack. Warriors thus adorn their helmets with its feathers as emblems of righteousness and courage.

The "Ming Snake" and "Hua Snake," resembling each other, both summon great waves—their appearance often heralds floods. Chiyang copper from Mount Kunwu cuts jade like mud and changes color when heated.

The "Xun Chi Deity" remains formless, yet its dwelling places yield exquisite jade. The "Wu Luo Goddess," slender-waisted with pearly teeth and earrings, governs the Divine City of Di Mi and receives women's offerings.

The "Yao Bird," resembling a green-feathered wild duck with crimson eyes, grants fertility to women who eat its flesh. "Xun Cao" bears red berries that enhance feminine beauty when consumed.

The "Ma Fu Beast" combines a human face with a tiger's body, while the "Flying Fish," pig-like with red markings, grants immunity to weapons when eaten. The "Tai Feng Deity" frequents southern mountains, capable of altering weather patterns.

"Ji Bai" blooms white flowers yielding red berries that transform one's constitution—consumers become cold-resistant. Mozi once marveled at how substances adapt to environments. The text also documents citrus and pomelo trees.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records numerous marvelous plants, animals, and geographical phenomena:

There exists a type of orange tree bearing golden-bright fruits with emerald-green leaves, regarded as a numinous marvel. On Mount Daguì grows a peculiar apple-grass with blue blossoms and white fruits—eating it prevents premature death, allowing one to live out their natural lifespan without extending it beyond mortal limits.

The jiao-fish is an extraordinary aquatic creature whose skin can be crafted into ornamental decorations for swords and blades. The zhen-bird, by contrast, is the most venomous avian—wherever it flies, vegetation withers, for its feathers contain lethal poison, making it a celestial agent of divine retribution.

The prickly ash tree produces fiery-red berries with a pungent flavor; consuming them induces trance-like visions of spiritual communion. Mythical beasts like Shénwéi, Wéi, and Jìměng manifest diverse forms—some three-legged, others with tiger claws or dragon heads—capable of summoning winds and rains.

The vital Qi (energy) of Mount Mín connects directly with the Eastern Well constellation in the heavens. Beginning as a mere spoonful of water, it eventually converges into mighty rivers. In the southwest dwells the colossal kuí-ox, its body vast as hanging clouds and flesh weighing thousands of jūn (an ancient weight unit)—yet despite its strength, it cannot pull a cartwheel.

Mount Qióngxiá's treacherous slopes wind through nine bends and eighteen turns. The zhāngláng and yōnghé are two vicious beasts whose appearances herald war and pestilence. The wèi-creature plugs its nostrils with its tail during rainstorms while hanging upside-down from trees—its likeness often cast onto ritual bronze vessels.

Bear Mountain contains caverns where divine beings emerge. The qīnggēng bird wards off plagues, while the appearance of the qǐzhǒng bird foretells calamity. The jiao-dragon is neither serpent nor true dragon, its iridescent scales gleaming as it churns through rivers. The Farming Father deity roams limpid watersides—commoners making offerings to him can avert disasters. On Nine Bells Mountain, the bronze bells resonate spontaneously when the frost descends.

This passage from the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing) records several extraordinary creatures and natural phenomena. Here's a modern interpretation:

When Mount Yao collapses and the Jing River dries up, qilins (Chinese unicorns) will engage in combat. At such times, nine great bells will sound spontaneously, and frost and snow will arrive prematurely. These phenomena occur due to the mutual resonance of celestial and terrestrial Qi (vital energy).

There exists a bird called "Yingshao" that inhabits Mount Zhili. Resembling a magpie with white plumage and crimson eyes, its tail resembles a ladle. Though shaped like a wine scoop, it cannot actually be used to dip wine.

The "Lin" beast possesses tiger-like claws and enjoys leaping about energetically, its scales producing resonant sounds when shaken. Legend states that consuming its flesh prevents dizziness during strong winds.

The waters of Mount Ditai can cure heart ailments, purify the mind, and harmonize one's Shen (spirit) while cultivating one's nature. Whether drunk or used for bathing, they bring physical and mental tranquility.

"Juru" is a harmless tiny insect, yet its appearance foretells military mobilization and impending battles. This demonstrates how all beings, regardless of size, participate in cosmic resonance.

An enormous mulberry tree grows by a deep pool, its trunk requiring five people to encircle, with intricately interwoven branches. Folklore identifies this as the mulberry tree used by the Heavenly Emperor's daughter for silkworm cultivation.

The appearance of the Liangqu beast heralds warfare, while the Xiji beast portends disasters. The Zhiyu bird can ward off fires. Each creature possesses unique attributes—for instance, the Lin beast's presence brings gales.

The deity "Yu'er" has a human head and serpent body, dwelling in river depths and deep pools. Appearing and disappearing in caves, its body emits mysterious radiance.

Two goddesses reside in Dongting Lake, wandering the five great rivers with elusive movements. Revered as "Xiang Consorts," they serve as divine spirits of the Xiang River waters.

"Flying snakes" can ride clouds and mist to ascend skyward, yet must fall back to earth when the clouds disperse. Without this aerial support, they cannot maintain flight.

(From Volume 5 of the Classic of Mountains and Seas, this section documents various marvelous creatures and their connections to natural phenomena, reflecting ancient Chinese animistic worldviews.)