《弘道錄》Vol. 26

The Book of Rites says that marriage joins two different families. Through it, people above can make offerings to their ancestors, and descendants below can carry on the family line; for this reason, the noble person treats marriage with great seriousness. The wedding rites proceed in order: na cai, the presentation of gifts; wen ming, the inquiry of the bride’s name; na ji, the announcement of an auspicious match; na zheng, the presentation of betrothal gifts; and qing qi, the setting of the wedding date. At each rite, the bride’s family head sets out a mat in the ancestral temple, performs the proper observances, and goes outside the gate to receive the groom’s envoy. Host and guest exchange bows and defer to each other before entering the hall to hear the ritual instructions. These practices express the seriousness, care, and propriety with which marriage should be treated.

The newlyweds share a meal and drink from joined cups, showing that from then on they are one and are to be equally honored; the rite also deepens their closeness. Only after the wedding has been solemnly conducted may husband and wife live together intimately. This is the foundation of ritual propriety: it establishes the distinction between men and women and defines the proper status of husband and wife.

At daybreak, the bride bathes and waits. Once it is light, the ritual officiant presents her to pay her respects to her parents-in-law. She appears carrying a hairpin, dates, chestnuts, and duanxiu, prepared dried meat; the officiant performs a rite for her with sweet wine. The bride offers dried meat, meat sauce, and sweet wine, thereby completing the rites for a new bride. The parents-in-law then enter the inner room, where she presents a meal with a piglet, demonstrating that she will obey them. On the following day, the parents-in-law host a banquet for her. They observe the rite of one offering, in which the host presents wine to the guest once, and exchange wine in the customary response. The parents-in-law descend from the hall by the western steps, and the bride then descends by the eastern steps, showing that she will take the place of the household’s principal woman.

After the rites for the new bride are complete, her virtue of obedience must be further confirmed, making clear the responsibilities she undertakes. The obedience expected of a wife means obeying her parents-in-law, living harmoniously with the other members of the household, and then joining in accord with her husband. She must also manage spinning, weaving, and other textile work, and carefully oversee the household stores and property. With these virtues of wifely obedience, the family can maintain harmony and order within the home, and its livelihood can endure. This is why wise rulers place great importance on the wedding rites.

The Hongdao lu says that the discussion begins with the meaning of marriage because after Heaven and Earth came all things; after all things came men and women; after men and women came husbands and wives; and after husbands and wives came fathers and sons. Only once there are fathers and sons is there a basis for putting into practice the ritual principles governing ruler and subject, and those above and below. Nothing takes precedence over the way of husband and wife. That is why the Book of Rites says both that the noble person values the wedding rites and that sage kings value them.

The deeper meaning is especially evident in the solemn use of the wild goose as a formal gift at every stage of the wedding. The rites of na cai, wen ming, na ji, na zheng, qing qi, and qin ying, the groom’s formal reception of the bride, all use a wild goose as the gift. This shows that seriousness and care must mark the marriage throughout, rather than appearing as a symbol at only one stage. If later generations neglect these rites, even to the point of failing to perform the wild goose offering at the groom’s reception of the bride, it shows that they have slighted their ancestors before the marriage has been formally joined, and neglected the bride before the couple have even begun their life together. The text is missing characters here, so the meaning of its final sentence is incomplete.

On the matter of coincidences recurring and matches being repeated, this is truly inappropriate. I have therefore recorded these words to preserve the principles they contain.

The “Canon of Yao” says: “Yao married his two daughters to Shun, making them his wives, at a bend in the Gui River.”

The Hongdao lu explains: “The first line of the Zhen trigram and the second line of the Li trigram are both one yang line positioned between two yin lines. Yao wanted Shun to take up the work associated with the Zhen trigram and carry on the work associated with the Li trigram, so he married both his daughters to him. The later rite by which the Son of Heaven took nine consorts used nine because it is a yang number. By this account, Yao must also have had a purpose in marrying his daughters to Shun.”

The “Marrying Maiden” hexagram in the Book of Changes says: “The marriage of Emperor Yi’s daughter: her sleeves were less splendid than those of the younger sister who accompanied her as a bride.”

The Hongdao lu explains: “In the measures Emperor Yi took to establish proper marriage rites and clarify the distinctions between men and women, the first concern was the distinction between the principal wife and concubines. The classic says that the principal wife’s sleeves were less splendid than those of the younger sister accompanying her as a bride. This was likely because ritual takes simplicity as its foundation, while a woman’s conduct is what matters most. Without virtue, she would only flaunt fine clothing before others, treating licentiousness and jealousy as ordinary and feeling no shame. Thus, seeing that the principal wife’s sleeves were less splendid than her younger sister’s, one can understand why the Shang dynasty’s governance flourished. Seeing seats, favor, and clothing all made more lavish and splendid than those of others, one can understand why the customs of the Yin dynasty declined. This is not all: Emperor Taizu of Song once admonished Princess Yongning not to wear a short jacket embroidered with appliqué and adorned with kingfisher feathers. Zhao Feiyan, by contrast, even decorated her shoes with gold. How could someone like that have a good end for long?”

The “Great Brightness” poem in the Book of Songs says: “A maiden of a great state, lovely as the sister of the Lord on High. The auspicious sign of the marriage was confirmed; he went in person to meet her at the Wei River. Linked boats were laid to form a bridge—what splendid glory!”

The Hongdao lu explains: “Yao married his daughter to Shun to reward Shun’s achievements; King Wen of Zhou went to meet the noble maiden he was to marry, and this was a sign that Heaven had bestowed its Mandate upon him. So linked boats were set out for the wedding procession, and a bridge was built for the passage of carriages and horses. This shows the remarkable dignity and grandeur of the time, and how its ritual institutions were established. King Wen later received the rites of the Son of Heaven. Afterward, the state of Lu claimed to uphold the rites of Zhou, yet Duke Ai of Lu prized a single ceremonial cap and failed to understand that the true glory lay in building a bridge of boats for a wedding. He prized possessing a thousand chariots of war and failed to understand how rare it was to marry a worthy maiden as lovely as the sister of the Lord on High. This, perhaps, is why Confucius responded with such grave concern, and why Lu ultimately failed to make its glory shine.”

The “Ge Tan” poem in the “Zhou Nan” section of the Book of Songs says: “The kudzu vines spread, reaching down into the valley; their leaves grow thick and lush. The yellow birds fly and settle among the bushes, their calls harmonious and sweet. The kudzu vines spread, reaching down into the valley; their leaves grow thick and lush. Cut the vines, boil them, and weave them into fine and coarse cloth, garments pleasant to wear and never tiresome…”

“Tell the female tutor”—the woman who teaches the girls in the palace—“please tell her that I am going back to my parents’ home. Please have my everyday clothes washed, and my ceremonial clothes washed as well. When should they be washed? When I return to my parents’ home.”

The Record says: What makes the so-called “Heavenly Maiden”—a woman of noble status—worthy of esteem is not her high rank and wealthy family, which others can scarcely hope to match. It is that, though wealthy, she remains industrious; though noble, she remains frugal; and, even as she grows older, she continues to respect her teachers and does not neglect their instruction. After marriage, her filial devotion to her parents does not diminish.

If, in later generations, a woman were to stop raising silkworms and weaving because there was no household work to be done, she would be unlike the woman described in “Ge Tan.” If she treated her cauldrons and pots as though they were jade, regarded pearls and jewels as mere clods of earth, and did not care when gold vessels were melted down, she would be unlike those who are industrious, frugal, and glad to serve. If, while her husband was traveling far away, she were overcome with worry, she would be unlike the woman who says, “Tell the female tutor.” And if a woman of Qi married with a retinue as numerous as the clouds, yet never returned to visit her parents, she would be unlike the woman who “returns in peace to her parents.”

When a daughter of the Zhou king, a Wangji, married a feudal lord, her carriages, horses, and clothes were splendid. Yet she did not use her noble status to act arrogantly toward her husband’s family. So the poet praised her: “How splendid she is, like the flowers of the tangdi tree! How stately and graceful is the Wangji’s carriage! How splendid she is, with blossoms like peach and plum. She is the granddaughter of King Ping and the daughter of the Marquis of Qi.”

The Record says: When a feudal lord’s daughter married, the poem says, “A hundred carriages escort her.” This is not to boast of a grand procession, but to show the results of King Wen’s cultivation of himself and the ordering of his family. The description of the Wangji’s carriage as “stately and graceful” is likewise not merely praise of her; it shows the household instruction imparted by Taisi, King Wen’s wife.

Some men dress in ceremonial robes and personally welcome their brides, yet, once home, cannot treat their wives with respect. This is because they rely on their own status. Others receive a fief and inherit a title, yet cannot carry on the family estate in harmony. This is because their dispositions are unruly. The greatest danger in marriage is to presume on one’s status; the good fortune of a family depends on harmony and freedom from discord.

Though she possessed noble status and gentle virtue, the Wangji remained humble in her conduct; this is “solemn reverence.” A young woman in the prime of life married an older husband, yet adapted to their life together and lived with him in harmony; this is “harmony.” Surely this is why the granddaughter of King Ping and daughter of the Marquis of Qi is still praised today and never tires those who hear of her.

The feudal lords of the south, transformed by King Wen’s teachings, were able to set their hearts right and cultivate themselves, bringing harmony to their households. Their women, too, were shaped by the instruction of the royal consorts and possessed virtues of devotion, calmness, and purity. Thus, when a woman married a feudal lord, the people of her husband’s family praised her, saying: “The magpie built a nest, and the turtledove came to dwell in it. This young woman is married, and a hundred carriages come to escort her. The magpie built a nest, and the turtledove came to dwell in it…”

Magpies build a nest, and turtledoves move in. A young woman is married, and a hundred carriages come to escort her.

The nest fills with turtledoves. The young woman is married, and a hundred carriages see the wedding through.

The Hongdao lu says: When a lord’s daughter marries another lord, a hundred carriages are used both to escort the bridegroom and to send off the bride. This is because, as the wife of a lord, she must take charge of the household, while also holding the status of a ruler’s consort. In the line of succession, she is connected to ancestral sacrifices and the continuation of the family; in rank, she is the equal of a lord. Once the marriage rites of the lords have been properly completed, a dignified woman may enter the household, and its inner administration is thereby established.

The Odes of Shao begins with “The Magpie’s Nest.” Its meaning is that the ruler’s consort is someone the people look up to, and so great care must be taken. This is precisely how ritual guards against impropriety. Even so, there were women who rode to court in pheasant-feathered carriages, like Lady Zhuang Jiang of Wei, yet received no response from their husbands; and there were daughters of royal ministers who rode in great, rumbling carriages, yet did not dare to go off on their own for secret meetings. How far apart, then, were they from the ritual order embodied in “The Magpie’s Nest”?

After the Marquis of Han had paid court to the Son of Heaven and returned home, he went in person to meet his bride. The poem says: “The Marquis of Han takes a wife: she is the niece of King Fen and the daughter of Juefu. The Marquis of Han goes to Juefu’s home village to meet her. A hundred carriages sweep along in grand procession; eight bells ring out, bright and clear. The bridesmaids follow in a great company, as numerous as clouds. The Marquis of Han looks back at them: they fill the doorway in splendid dress, radiant with color.”

The Hongdao lu says: In my view, it was Qi and Lu that first abandoned the rite of the bridegroom personally meeting his bride; it was not that everyone in the world failed to observe it. Han was also a feudal state, yet the Marquis of Han observed the rites so fully. Gentlemen considered that he had preserved something of ancient custom. By contrast, verses such as “Wait for me inside the gate” and “The ear ornaments are white” reflect the customs of Qi and the lingering influence of hegemonic rule.

Lu was originally a state that upheld ritual and right conduct, yet it allowed Lǚ Xi to come and meet his bride. Whether Lǚ Xi came to marry her was a matter for the state of Ji and cannot be blamed on Lu; but Lu itself had good reason to refuse. As descendants of the Duke of Zhou, they acted in a way that fell short even of Juefu’s daughter. This was what made Confucius lament so deeply. Thus it is said: “When the Odes came to an end, the Spring and Autumn Annals began.”

The Lesser Odes says: “The carriages roll and rumble, winding their way here. I think of that lovely woman, who is about to be married. I am neither hungry nor thirsty; I only hope she will bring good news. Even without close friends, let us set out a feast, gather together, and be glad with one another. In the level woods over there, pheasants gather. That lovely woman comes bearing virtue to teach me. Let us feast and praise you; may you be joyful and never weary. Even without sweet wine, let us drink a little; even without fine dishes, let us eat a little. Even if I have no virtue to offer you, I would still sing and dance with you. I climb the ridge and cut branches from the oak; its leaves and branches are thick and flourishing. Now that I have seen you, at last I can speak what is in my heart.”

Ah, the high mountain inspires people to look up, and the Great Dao is worthy of admiration and willing pursuit. Four horses race forward, their six reins working in harmony like the notes of a zither. To witness your wedding is enough to bring comfort to my heart.

The Hongdao lu says: The image of the Xian hexagram is “a lake above a mountain.” In keeping with this, the noble person humbly welcomes others. The sages valued the feelings between men and women because their fundamental aim was to pass on fine Virtue. People in the world, however, often pursue outward beauty alone. Seeing a face as lovely as a hibiscus blossom, they become consumed with longing; once she grows old and loses her beauty, they cast her aside. So a reputation for fine Virtue should never be forgotten. Yet how long can people hold to it? Virtue as beautiful as green silk should be tended and kept in order, but dignified conduct and proper appearance are often neglected. Did the ancients really treat Virtue this way?

The sages used the meaning of the Guanju to transform a household, the meaning of the Taoyao to guide a state, and the meaning of the Cheqian to extend their teaching throughout the world. They taught that men and women unite in accordance with what is right, and that the Virtue of husband and wife is made complete through Virtue. Looking up to high mountains and honoring the Great Dao can also bring together Heaven and the human world. Those who govern a state all seek worthy people to assist them; those who cultivate the Dao likewise seek friends to help them develop benevolence. This is the greatest benefit that comes when mountain and lake respond to one another. It is the root of the Xian hexagram’s success, the deeper meaning of welcoming others with humility, and the good impulse at the heart of admiring the Great Dao. Who can say that newlyweds are concerned only with singing, dancing, laughter, and pleasure?

The Jiao teshi says: The man personally goes to welcome the bride, with the man walking in front. This is the principle of firmness and yielding complementing one another. Heaven is above Earth, and the ruler above the ministers; the principle is the same. When the man and woman exchange gifts, they express respect and make clear their respective positions. Only when men and women are distinct can the bond between father and son grow close. Once that bond is close, moral duty can arise; once moral duty is established, ritual can take shape; and once ritual is in place, all things can be settled. Without distinction and without moral duty, people behave like animals.

The groom personally drives the bride’s carriage and offers her the strap used to climb aboard. This shows his closeness to her. After leaving the gate, the groom leads the way, and the bride follows behind; thus the moral bond between husband and wife begins. A woman follows others: as a child, she follows her father and elder brothers; after marriage, her husband; and after her husband’s death, her son. A husband should be wise and able to guide his household. For this reason, a woman does not hold a separate rank but follows her husband’s rank, and when seated, her place is determined by her husband’s age and seniority. Earthenware and gourd vessels are used for sacrifices and daily life to honor the plainness of ritual.

On the morning after the wedding, the bride washes her hands and prepares food to serve her parents-in-law. After they have eaten, she eats what they leave. This expresses the family’s closeness and lack of reserve. The parents-in-law descend from the western steps, and the bride from the eastern steps, because she has now become a member of the household. No music is played at the wedding, to convey stillness and the yielding quality of Yin; music symbolizes Yang energy. Nor do people offer congratulations, because this is a rite that continues the family line, not an ordinary celebration.

The Hongdao lu says that the Jiao teshi concludes the discussion because the distinction between Heaven and Earth, the interaction of firmness and yielding, and the union of man and woman are precisely the principles that ritual sets out to explain.

Then cunning and bestial behavior arose: women who beguiled men, as the poems of the “Zheng Airs” satirize; customs in which distinctions of age and rank were ignored, as in the confusion of a herd of does; wives who did not personally serve their husbands, as described in “Final Storm”; women who would not obey men, as satirized in “The Bold Fox”; women who secretly crossed the borders, as criticized by Fan Gou; clever people who did not follow the proper Way, like the one who died in a carriage; people who were arrogant and presumed to issue commands in their own name; and wives who did not personally prepare meals, as reflected in the move to the Western Palace. All these actions were serious violations of ritual.

The “Fifth Year of Duke Yin” in the Zuo Tradition records: In the ninth month, the state of Lu built a temple for Zhongzi and prepared to perform the Wan dance. Duke Yin of Lu asked Zhongzhong how many rows of feathered dancers should be used. Zhongzhong replied, “The Son of Heaven uses eight rows, the feudal lords six, great officers four, and lower officers two. Dance harmonizes the eight musical tones and embodies the airs of the eight directions; thus, from eight rows down, each rank has its own prescribed number.” Duke Yin followed his advice and began offering six rows of dancers at sacrifices, with six yi—six rows of eight dancers each.

The Hongdao Lu comments: Master Lü of Donglai held that King Cheng of Zhou had once bestowed the Son of Heaven’s rites and music on the Duke of Zhou. By Duke Yin’s time, he alone could recognize the errors that had persisted for hundreds of years. Why did Zhongzhong not explain the matter clearly, so that the world could once again see the rites and music of the Duke of Zhou? Then the state of Lu would have had two Dukes of Zhou. Could this really be so?

The answer is no. Ritual cannot be altered at will to please another, and words should not be wasted in excess. Heaven and Earth are clearly ordered by rank; ritual comes first and music follows. These rules cannot lightly be changed. Duke Yin, as the eldest son born of a concubine, performed the ancestral sacrifices and paired Duke Hui with Mengzi in the rites, which was in keeping with ritual. But he indulged another’s wishes by building a temple for a concubine, overturning the order of rank. This is what is meant by “presuming to please another.” Zhongzhong should have explained the distinctions between concubine and principal wife, between a son born of a concubine and the principal heir, and the principle that there cannot be two principal wives. Only after setting names and speech in order could ritual and music be brought into proper practice. Instead, he went along with Duke Yin’s intentions and spoke only of the number of feathers in the dance rows. The proper sequence had already been reversed; this is what is meant by “wasting words.” Even if such a dance were performed in every ancestral temple, it would already have disrupted the ritual established by the Duke of Zhou. It still could not remedy the root of disorder and decline. How, then, could one blame only the evils that emerged gradually afterward? He attended only to fine distinctions in mourning for relatives and to questions of age and precedence, without understanding what mattered most. Thus he failed to recognize slander when it was spread, and did not understand the cause when disorder broke out.

Ji Wenzi went to the state of Song to bring back a bride. When he returned, he reported to the ruler of Lu. The ruler held a banquet in his honor, and Ji Wenzi recited the fifth stanza of “Han Yi.” Mu Jiang came out from the inner quarters, bowed twice, and said, “My lord, you have endured a difficult journey, yet you have not forgotten our former ruler…”

The enthroned ruler showed kindness and also remembered the widow left by his predecessor. Perhaps the late ruler still had something to hope for. I respectfully thanked the minister for his great kindness, recited the final stanza of “Green Robe,” and then went inside.

Hu’s Commentary says: Boji was virtuous and filial, and her good reputation was well known at home. When she married, Lu sent high-ranking ministers to escort her and showed particular generosity in the dowry and wedding rites. Her virtue was renowned far and wide, so the various states competed to send women as attendants with her. People believed she had no jealousy in her nature. Cheng’s Commentary says: If a woman’s virtue could be heard of even among the feudal lords, how much more so could that of a gentleman? Both accounts depart from the original meaning of the classic.

The Record of the Broad Way says: Mu Jiang sent her daughter to the state of Song. When she entered the household, she recited “Green Robe.” What, then, was her virtue really like? Later, she had an illicit affair with Xuanbo, and when she sought an oracle, she obtained the hexagram Sui, “Following.” What sort of fault was that? The Book of Songs says, “Make no accusation, make no criticism, so that…” (some characters are missing from the original here), and also says that a minister was disgraced. Now there is already criticism. The Book of Documents says, “The household is about to fall into decline.” The ruler feasted with his ministers, while the mother did not come out from her inner quarters. This was like a hen crowing at dawn, a sign that Yin was flourishing and Yang declining. The oppression and disorder that later befell the Eastern Palace also began here. Thus Boji is recorded not to praise her virtue, but to warn Lu of the calamities that would follow. The Sage’s intention was truly far-reaching.

The Biographies of Exemplary Women records: Boji married Duke Gong. After his death, she remained a widow. During the reign of Duke Jing, a fire broke out at night in Boji’s palace. Her attendants said, “Madam, please leave for now and escape the fire.” Boji replied, “The rule for women is that at night, if the governess and matron are not both present, one must not go down from the hall. I will wait until they arrive.” The matron arrived, but the governess had not yet come. Her attendants again urged her to escape, but Boji said, “The rule for women is that one must not go down from the hall at night until both attendants have arrived. Better to die observing ritual propriety than to live by violating it.” In the end, she was consumed by the flames.

The Record of the Broad Way says: Is it really true that the lady refused to flee the fire because her governess had not yet arrived? After Duke Gong died, she was simply a widow. Some say that she cut off her nose to show her fidelity; this was already contrary to the proper Way. Others say she feared that hanging herself would pollute the ditch. If she could use ritual propriety as a reason to refuse to flee the fire, what could she regret after death? What could she regret?

Meng Ji was the eldest daughter of the Hua family and married Duke Xiao of Qi as his wife. She loved ritual propriety and was steadfast and devoted. Duke Xiao of Qi traveled to Langya, and Meng Ji accompanied him. On the way, the horses bolted and the carriage broke apart. Duke Xiao ordered a covered carriage to be prepared, drawn by four horses, so that he could take her away. Meng Ji told the driver to lower the curtains and conceal her, then asked the governess to answer for her: “I have heard that when a consort leaves through the palace gate, she must ride in a steady carriage; when she descends from the hall, the governess and matron must accompany her. In every movement forward or back, she must wear the king’s jade ring and pendant, so that they sound as she moves. When she enters her inner quarters…”

She arranged her clothing and fastened her sash, acting with care and circumspection. When staying outdoors, she used a curtain to screen herself. She did this to keep her mind upright and remain focused and self-possessed. Now this carriage has no curtains, so I dare not obey the command to ride in it. And here in the open country there is no protection, so I dare not remain for long. Both circumstances seriously violate ritual propriety. It is better to die early than to live without propriety. The messenger hurried back to report this. Duke Xiao of Qi (a ruler of Qi during the Spring and Autumn period) had another steady carriage prepared, and only then did she ride back.

The Hongdao lu comments: Meng Ji, the wife of Duke Xiao of Qi, may be said to have understood ritual propriety. Propriety must never be set aside, even for a moment. That is why a woman must keep her face screened when she goes out. How could she agree to ride in a carriage without curtains? Yet when Duke Xiao traveled to Langya, his wife accompanied him. In spring, was she going to inspect the plowing, and in summer the harvest? Or was she following Duke Xiao on hunting trips, drinking and making merry while neglecting affairs of state? If Meng Ji truly understood these principles, she should not have waited until the horses bolted, the carriage broke apart, and she was forced to lodge outdoors in haste before calmly observing her duties as a wife at home.

Qi Liang Zhi, a man of Qi, died in battle when Duke Zhuang of Qi attacked Ju. On his way back to Qi, Duke Zhuang passed the home of Qi Liang Zhi’s wife and sent a messenger to offer condolences along the road. She said, “If Qi Liang Zhi was guilty, why should the ruler trouble himself to send someone to console me? If he was innocent, my family has ancestral property within the city walls. I cannot accept condolences out in the suburbs.” Duke Zhuang therefore turned his carriage around, went in person to her home, and offered condolences according to ritual before departing.

Qi Liang Zhi’s wife had no sons, and among her relatives, both inside and outside the family, there was no one within the five degrees of mourning kinship. She laid her husband’s body beneath the city wall and wept aloud. The sincerity of her grief moved those around her, and everyone who passed by shed tears for her. Ten days later, the city wall collapsed as a result. After burying her husband, she said, “Who can I rely on now? When my father was alive, I relied on him; when my husband was alive, I relied on him; if I had a son, I would rely on him. Now I have no father above me, no husband beside me, and no son below me. Who can I rely on?” Then she threw herself into the Zi River and died. The noble person judged that Qi Liang Zhi’s wife was chaste and understood ritual propriety.

The Hongdao lu comments: Qi Liang’s wife cannot be compared with Meng Ji. A husband’s departure to serve in war is righteous, while accompanying him on outings for pleasure and sightseeing is not. Thus, the longing of the wife whose husband has gone to war in “Bo Xi” in the Book of Songs, and the separation of husband and wife described in “Xiong Zhi” in the Book of Songs, are not circumstances that women should deliberately bring about. The collapse of the city wall was no strange upheaval in nature, and there are few deeds that can change the customs of the age, because both arise from the sincerity within her heart. Alas, to observe propriety calmly and not dare to act as one pleases: this is what it means to be chaste and proper. Was she truly so?

The Discourses of the States records: The mother of Gongfu Wenbo wanted to find a wife for Wenbo, so she held a banquet for the elders of the clan…

Someone composed the third chapter of “Green Clothes.” An elder asked that divination be performed according to the old custom of keeping a tortoise in the divination chamber. After hearing this, Shi Hai said, “Good. When men and women hold a banquet, they do not involve the clan’s ministers; when members of the ruling house discuss affairs, they do not go beyond their own clan. Their deliberations do not violate ritual, and even in the smallest details they make the principle clear. The Book of Songs gives voice to one’s feelings, and singing gives voice to its poems. Now, using a poem to express the feelings of the family and then singing it aloud accords with ritual.”

The Hongdao Lu says: How could Jing Jiang’s banquet be compared with Mu Jiang’s? Marriage is the beginning of the people’s continuance. Honoring the ancestral temple and consulting the elders of the clan are ways to bring harmony between two families. The Book of Changes says, “When the family is governed by rules, regret will disappear.” Surely this is what it means of Jing Jiang.

Thus, her words did not concern the outer court: this was wisdom. When discussing matters at home, she always sought the counsel of an elder who kept the tortoise in the divination chamber: this was keeping faith. Her banquet did not involve the clan’s ministers: this was propriety. In her labor, she did not forget what was her responsibility: this was righteousness. In her speech, she did not forget her parents-in-law: this was benevolence. What she meant by “deliberating without transgressing” was “acting in accordance with the rules.” How deeply the exemplary gentleman praised her!

The Yili Jingzhuan records that Shi Chun Jiang of Lu said, “For a woman, obedience is essential, and chastity and honesty are foremost. Therefore, there are five rites in serving one’s husband: in the morning, she arranges her hair, puts in her hairpin, and pays her respects to her husband, showing the solemnity of the relationship between ruler and minister; she washes his hands and prepares his meal, showing the respect found between father and son; she welcomes him when he returns home and sees him off when he leaves, showing the affection found between brothers; she keeps her word when making an agreement, showing the trust found between friends; and only after they have shared a bed and pillow does the intimacy between husband and wife arise.”

Nü Zong of Song was the wife of Bao Su. After Bao Su had served as an official in Wei for three years, he took another wife. Nü Zong’s sister-in-law said to her, “You can leave now.” Nü Zong asked, “Why?” Her sister-in-law replied, “Your husband has someone else he loves. Why stay here?” Nü Zong answered, “For a woman, constancy is chastity and skillful obedience is compliance. Is monopolizing one’s husband’s affection really a virtue? Ritual stipulates that the Son of Heaven may have twelve consorts, a feudal lord nine, a high minister three, and a gentleman two. My husband is a gentleman, and he has two wives. Is that not within the rules? Besides, of the seven grounds for divorcing a woman, jealousy is foremost. Rather than teaching me the rites of household life, you urge me to act in a way that will get me divorced. How can that be right?” In the end, she did not heed her sister-in-law. When the Duke of Song heard of this, he erected a commendation plaque at her home and called her “Exemplar of Ritual.”

The Hongdao Lu says: Lu and Song were both states that valued ritual and righteousness. Thus, both Shi Chun Jiang and Nü Zong truly could serve as exemplars for the inner quarters and standards for the household. Later generations took them as models in matters of ritual, and for this reason they were recorded.

The Elementary Learning says: A man was sent on a mission. Passing through Ji, he saw Ji Que weeding in the fields while his wife brought him a meal. Husband and wife treated one another with respect.

Ji Que’s wife brought him a meal in the fields. They treated each other with respect, as though each were welcoming a guest. For this reason, Ji Que was recommended to Duke Wen. The duke said, “Respecting virtue is a way to gather virtue. With respect, one can surely cultivate virtue. Virtue can be used to govern the people, so the ruler should appoint him. I have heard that when going out, one should be as respectful as if welcoming a guest, and when conducting affairs, as solemn as in a sacrifice. These are the principles of benevolence.” Duke Wen then appointed Ji Que as a senior officer in the Lower Army.

Pang Gong never entered the government offices in the city. He and his wife treated each other with respect, as though each were welcoming a guest. When Liu Biao went to visit him, Pang Gong was plowing along a field ridge, while his wife and children weeded ahead of him. Liu Biao pointed to him and asked, “Sir, you toil away in the countryside, yet refuse to take office and accept a salary. What will you leave your descendants?” Pang Gong replied, “What people leave their descendants is usually danger. I alone am leaving mine security. Though what I leave is different, you cannot say I have left them nothing.” Liu Biao sighed and departed.

The Hongdao lu comments: “Ji Que was weeding as he worked the fields, and Pang Gong was plowing. What difference was there between them? Ji Que temporarily withdrew for the sake of his reputation, while Pang Gong chose to remain in the countryside. One who chooses to remain withdrawn does not seek advancement once he has stepped back. One who withdraws temporarily for the sake of his reputation may later still advance and put his ambitions into practice. That is the difference between the two. Who could be unaware of the upheaval that befell Lü Sheng? Yet the related events have not been widely passed down. The story of the hook-shooting, by contrast, can serve as a warning. Ji used a single sentence to win the highest reward; Ji Que, after the affairs of the Three Jin states, eventually attained the rank of chief minister. Duke Wen was indeed cautious in weighing his options.”

The Book of Han records that when Shen Furen, a favorite of Emperor Wen of Han, was in the palace, she sometimes sat at the same table as the empress. Once, when the emperor went to tour Shanglin Park, the empress and Shen Furen accompanied him. As Yuan Ang, the director of the palace attendants, arranged the seats, he moved Shen Furen’s mat aside. Shen Furen was angry and refused to sit; the emperor also rose in anger. Yuan Ang stepped forward and advised him: “I have heard that when rank and status are properly ordered, those above and below can live in harmony. Since the empress has been established, Shen Furen is only a concubine. How can she sit at the same table as the empress? Surely Your Majesty has seen the fate of the human pig?” The emperor was pleased by what he heard. He summoned Shen Furen, explained the matter to her, and awarded Yuan Ang fifty jin of gold.

The Hongdao lu comments: “In my view, at the beginning of the Han dynasty, decorum was lax not only among ruler and ministers at court; even within the palace there were many failures of proper order, as this incident shows. Later generations no longer had such a situation.”

When Empress Deng of the Eastern Han, posthumously known as Empress He Xi, first entered the rear palace—the quarters where the imperial consorts lived—and became a noble lady, she was only sixteen. She was respectful and cautious, and her conduct always accorded with ritual. In serving Empress Yin, she remained careful and apprehensive from morning to night. In receiving and caring for the other women of her rank, she often restrained herself and yielded to them. She showed kindness even to palace maids and servants. Whenever the consorts and noble ladies gathered, they competed to adorn themselves; their hairpins and earrings glittered, and their garments…

Her clothes were bright and splendid, while she alone prized simplicity, wearing plain garments without ornament and remaining modest and self restrained in every respect. Whenever the color of her clothes matched those of Empress Yin, she changed them at once. When she entered the palace with the empress to pay their respects to the emperor, she dared not sit upright, but stood turned to one side; when walking, she bent her body to show humility. Whenever the emperor asked her something, she always demurred before answering and dared not speak ahead of Empress Yin. The emperor knew how much effort the empress made to accommodate others and attend carefully to every detail. He sighed, “Must the cultivation of Virtue be so laborious?”

The Hongdao lu says: Seen in this light, not only was there no incident like that involving Lady Shen, who was once cautioned for sitting beside the empress, but Empress Ma’s practice of wearing plain, coarse cloth and honoring frugality would also spread from the top down. The Hongdao lu records this event.

Ban Zhao was the wife of Cao Shishu. She was also known as Ban Dagu. Broadly learned and exceptionally talented, she conducted herself in accordance with ritual and upheld proper standards in her character. She wrote seven chapters of the Nüjie: “Humility and Weakness, Part One,” “Husband and Wife, Part Two,” “Respect and Caution, Part Three,” “A Woman’s Conduct, Part Four,” “Single-mindedness, Part Five,” “Yielding in All Things, Part Six,” and “Harmony with Younger Aunts and Sisters-in-law, Part Seven.”

The Nüjie says, in essence: In ancient times, when a baby girl was three days old, she was laid beneath the bed, given a piece of tile to play with, and presented to the ancestors through a purification rite. Laying her beneath the bed showed that a woman’s status is humble and that she should place herself below others. Giving her a piece of tile showed that she should grow accustomed to work and be diligent in managing household affairs. Presenting her to the ancestors showed that a woman would one day bear responsibility for sacrifices. These three practices broadly express the enduring principles women should follow. Ritual teachings instruct women to be humble and respectful, putting others before themselves; not to boast of good deeds or shift blame for mistakes; to endure humiliation and remain mindful of reverence; to go to bed late and rise early, without shrinking from work at any hour; to manage household affairs without choosing between easy and difficult tasks; and to see every undertaking through, keep their own work in order, and maintain a proper bearing and character in serving their husbands. If they can do these things, then even if they fear that no one will recognize their good name or that they will suffer disparagement and humiliation, such things will not in fact come to pass.

The Way of husband and wife brings Yin and Yang into harmony and connects with the spirits. It is a great principle of Heaven and Earth and a vital bond among human relationships. If a husband is not virtuous, he cannot govern his wife; if a wife is not virtuous, she cannot serve her husband. Yin and Yang each have their own qualities, and men and women each have their own standards of conduct: strength is the virtue of Yang, while softness is the function of Yin; strength is prized in men, while gentleness is considered beautiful in women. In self cultivation, nothing matters more than respect; in avoiding forcefulness, nothing is better than compliance. Thus respect and compliance are important rules of conduct for women.

If a wife insults her husband without restraint, he will rebuke her; if she continues to rage, he will beat her. Husband and wife ought to be bound by moral principle and united by affection. Once there has been beating, how can one still speak of moral principle? Once there has been rebuke, how can affection endure? Both affection and moral principle have been cast aside…

After a couple has separated, a woman should embody four virtues: feminine virtue, feminine speech, feminine appearance, and feminine work.

Feminine virtue need not mean being exceptionally clever or outstandingly talented; feminine speech need not mean being eloquent or quick-tongued; feminine appearance need not mean being beautiful; and feminine work need not mean being more skilled than others. A calm and reserved temperament, fidelity and self-restraint, proper conduct, a sense of shame, and actions that follow the rules: these are feminine virtue. Speaking with care and propriety, avoiding coarse or hurtful words, and waiting for the right moment to speak so that others do not tire of listening: these are feminine speech. Washing away dirt, keeping one’s clothes neat, and bathing regularly so that one’s body is clean and one’s appearance remains proper: these are feminine appearance. Devoting oneself to spinning and weaving rather than idle amusements, and preparing food and drink in an orderly way for sacrifices and guests: these are feminine work.

These four qualities are important virtues for women and should not be lacking. They are not difficult to achieve; what matters is applying oneself. If one’s conduct violates the spirits and the Way of Heaven, Heaven will punish one; if one transgresses ritual and moral principles, one’s husband will distance himself. Thus the Nü Xian (a set of admonitions on women’s conduct) says: “If you win one person’s favor, you have a lifelong home; if you lose one person’s favor, you have nowhere to rely on for the rest of your life.” This shows that a woman should seek her husband’s approval. But this does not mean forcing intimacy through flattery and pleasing behavior. Better to devote oneself to uprightness, act in accordance with ritual, and keep oneself clean.

At home, do not believe rumors or let your eyes wander; when going out, do not dress provocatively, and at home do not neglect your appearance. Do not gather with a crowd for idle talk, and do not peer through doors. This is what it means to be devoted and upright. If one acts frivolously and without restraint, secretly eavesdropping and peeking; if at home one lets one’s hair fall loose and appearance become disordered, but outside strikes coy, alluring poses; if one says what should not be said or looks at what should not be seen, then one is not devoted and upright.

The Hongdao Lu says: What the Book of Rites discusses are the broad principles of Yin-Yang and firmness and gentleness; what the Admonitions for Women discusses are the specific rules for relations between inner and outer spheres, and for everyday conduct and comportment. It therefore records these words in detail, to inform those who understand the rites of the household.

Someone asked: In the time of King Zhao, power lay in the hands of a woman ruler. Since women’s admonitions could not set her straight, why discuss affairs of the outer court? Does this accord with the Way of caution and the virtue of feminine obedience? The answer is that this can be understood through the “Small Exceeding” hexagram of the Book of Changes. Its statement says: “Small Exceeding. Success. It is beneficial to be steadfast. Small matters may be done; great matters should not be done. It is not fitting to occupy the high position; it is fitting to occupy the low position. Great good fortune.” This describes precisely such a situation. The elder brother, who should have held the honored position and been the ruler, was instead misled and punished because the firm had lost its proper place and was not in the position suited to it. The younger sister, a concubine who should have been gentle and occupied a low position, instead gained power and was praised and ennobled because the yielding had met the right time and occupied a suitable position. Thus she first endured confinement and hardship, and only later made her principles clear.

The Yang says that “Small Exceeding” can bring success, and that carrying on the work already completed by an elder brother is conducive to abiding by what is right. Someone composed seven articles of instruction to support and encourage women, admonishing them not to occupy a higher position but to remain below. Later, the Six in the Fifth Place, as empress dowager, ruled from behind the curtain and occupied the higher position; only then was she able to live in harmony with others. Is this not what is called great good fortune? This passage from the Tuan Commentary seems to have been written with a particular matter in mind. Readers should reflect on it carefully.

Liang Hong, courtesy name Boluan, came from a poor family but prized integrity. He was widely learned and talented, with little that he did not understand. People in his home district admired his character, and many wanted to marry their daughters to him, but Liang Hong consistently refused to marry. A woman from the same county, a daughter of the Meng family, was heavyset and plain-looking, yet she steadfastly refused to marry. When her parents asked why, she said, “I want to marry a worthy man like Liang Boluan.” When Liang Hong heard of this, he sent a betrothal proposal and married her. The woman Meng asked that plain cloth and hemp shoes be provided as her trousseau. She also wove cloth and made baskets with her own hands, preparing the household utensils she would need. When she entered his home as a bride, she wore splendid adornments; only after seven days did she begin to perform the customary rites of a wife.

Hongdao lu comments: Wang Gui once served as tutor to Li Tai, Prince of Wei. Emperor Taizong of Tang said, “Serving Wang Gui is like serving me. Li Tai may bow to Wang Gui, but could he presume to coerce him?” Wang Gui could not correct Li Tai’s faults, yet he helped establish Li Tai’s good name. His approach differed from the principles by which Fang Xuanling and Du Ruhui conducted themselves.

In the sixth year of Jianzhong under Emperor Dezong of Tang, the court began to establish rules for princesses paying their respects to their maternal uncles and aunts—that is, their parents-in-law. Previously, after a princess married, her parents-in-law had to bow to her, while the bride did not return the bow. The emperor ordered the ritual officials to draw up a ceremony for a princess to pay her respects to her parents-in-law: they would sit in the main hall to receive her bows, while her uncles, brothers, sisters, and other relatives would stand in the eastern gallery to receive them. The rites were to be the same as in an ordinary household.

Hongdao lu comments: Ever since Princess Nanping married, the rites for princesses had differed from those of earlier eras, but this practice gradually fell into disuse. Besides, old social customs had been followed for so long that changing them all at once was difficult. Reestablishing the rites at this time was surely a good measure. For generations, the Tang court had been influenced by favored consorts in the inner palace and was also prone to inviting strange calamities. The stories of Princess Taiping, Princess Anle, and others repeatedly served as warnings of the dynasty’s downfall. By this time, many princesses had not married in good time; once their hair had turned white, even if they wished to dispense with ceremony, how could they do so?

Moreover, Dezong at first rejected a request from the official in charge, saying, “You care about saving money; I care about preserving ritual.” Yet when Princess Tang’an died, he blamed his chief ministers for spending too little, far below what he had required. Why were his actions at these two moments so inconsistent? Perhaps the state was beset by troubles when the rites were established, while by the time a pagoda was being built, extravagance had taken hold again. There was indeed a reason that his esteem for ritual could not be sustained to the end.

The History of the Song records: Empress Meng, wife of Emperor Zhezong, was the daughter of Meng Yuan, Defense Commissioner of Meizhou, posthumously honored as Grand Commandant…

Meng, daughter of Sun Zaizhi, a gentleman-in-waiting at the Sun Pavilion Gate, was already sixteen years old in the seventh year of the Yuanyou era (1092). Empress Dowager Xuanyiren said to the chief ministers and other senior officials, “Meng was taught the rites expected of women from childhood and can observe the proper conduct of a wife. She should be made empress.”

The Empress Dowager also considered the rites of recent years overly cursory, so she issued an edict instructing Hanlin academicians, officials responsible for remonstrance and censure, supervisory secretaries, drafting officials, and ritual officials to discuss the Six Rites for installing an empress, draw up a proposal, and submit it. The court then appointed ministers to preside over the various ceremonies. Lü Dafang, Left Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs, acted as Grand Commandant and served as envoy for welcoming the bride; Han Shiyan, Associate Director of the Privy Council, acted as Minister of Instruction and served as deputy envoy. Su Song, Left Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs, acted as Grand Commandant and served as envoy for presenting the formal announcement; Wang Yansou, Signatory of the Privy Council, acted as Minister of Instruction and served as deputy envoy. Su Zhe, Right Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs, acted as Grand Commandant and served as envoy for announcing the date; Zong Jing, the emperor’s great-uncle and Associate Director of the Imperial Clan Court, acted as Director of the Imperial Clan Court and served as deputy envoy. Zong Sheng, Prince of Gaomi Commandery, the emperor’s great-uncle and Director of the Imperial Clan Court, acted as Grand Commandant and served as envoy for presenting the betrothal gifts; Fan Bolu, a Hanlin academician, acted as Director of the Imperial Clan Court and served as deputy envoy. Wang Cun, Minister of Personnel, acted as Grand Commandant and served as envoy for presenting the auspicious divination; Liu Fengshi, Acting Minister of Revenue, acted as Director of the Imperial Clan Court and served as deputy envoy. Liang Tao, a Hanlin academician, acted as Grand Commandant and served as envoy for presenting the proposal of marriage and asking the bride’s name; Zheng Yong, Censor-in-Chief, acted as Director of the Imperial Clan Court and served as deputy envoy. These official titles and envoy appointments were established specifically to preside over the empress-installation rites.

The emperor personally installed Meng as empress at Wende Hall. The Empress Dowager also told the emperor, “To have a virtuous consort assisting you is no small matter.” The court then promoted the empress’s father to the posts of Palace Attendant and Prefect of Rongzhou, and granted her mother, Lady Wang, the title Lady of Huayuan Commandery.

The compiler of the Hongdao lu comments: This ceremony of the Song dynasty was complete and solemn, surpassing those of earlier dynasties and outdoing the Tang and Han. The court regarded a virtuous woman as the empress properly matched to the ruler, with a benevolent Empress Dowager presiding above and many senior ministers assisting below. How solemnly, then, were the Six Rites conducted!

Yet before long, a petty official could use slander to drive a wedge between the emperor and empress. Zhang Dun first took charge of government affairs at court, and Hao Sui later brought disaster in his wake. Although the emperor knew that such actions would damage his virtue, he was still led astray by them. Was this truly because he had once valued a virtuous consort but now placed his trust in wicked men? Or was it that calamity was approaching, turning events upside down while he remained unaware?

King You of Zhou deposed Queen Shen, and the Rong tribes then attacked Zhou. King Xiang of Zhou deposed Queen Di, and later met defeat in the state of Zheng. Such are the lessons handed down from antiquity. How can a gentleman fail to examine a matter from its very beginnings?

The Grand Princess of Jingguo, a daughter of Emperor Taizong of Song, had little interest in play from childhood. Taizong once opened the treasury where precious objects were kept and invited his daughters to choose something, hoping to see what was in their hearts. The princess alone took nothing. After Zhenzong ascended the throne, she married Li Zunxu, a Commandant of the Imperial Son-in-Law. Under the old rules, a family that married into the imperial house was treated as one generation lower. While Li Zunxu’s father, Li Jichang, was still alive, the princess went to wish him a happy birthday, observing the courtesies of a niece by marriage. When the emperor heard of this, he secretly provided clothes, a jeweled belt, and gifts to help her celebrate the old man’s birthday.

Whenever Li Zunxu hosted a banquet, the guests were eminent men of the time. The princess always personally attended to the food. When Li Zunxu became governor of Xuzhou, he suddenly fell ill, and the princess hurried to visit him. Those around her told her that she had to report the matter to the emperor and wait for his reply before setting out. She did not wait, but left with five or six attendants. When the emperor heard, he immediately ordered eunuch attendants to direct the county patrols to escort her.

Later, when Li Zunxu died, the princess wore mourning clothes throughout the mourning period. Even after it ended, she did not wear fine clothes. Once, at a banquet in the palace, the emperor personally put a flower in her hair. She declined, saying, “I vowed long ago never to do such a thing again.”

The Hongdao lu comments: According to the Song dynasty’s family rules, Emperor Renzong served his paternal aunt as a nephew. Could the princess not serve her father-in-law as a daughter-in-law? From this, we can see that the Princess of Jingguo upheld propriety, and that the emperor himself had already set an example. After the princess married, her parents-in-law were ranked as belonging to the same generation as her brothers. No such arrangement had been heard of in the three ancient dynasties; what mattered was how those involved conducted themselves. Readers should bear this in mind.

The Yichuan wenji records that Hou, the mother of Cheng Xiang—the father of the two Cheng brothers—served her parents-in-law with reverence and filial devotion, and treated her husband as an honored guest. Cheng Xiang relied on her help in managing the household and held her in special esteem and affection. Lady Hou, for her part, was modest and compliant, and kept herself in check. Even in small matters, she never acted on her own initiative, but always asked permission first. She loved her stepchildren no differently from her own, and cared just as attentively for her husband’s brothers’ children and his young aunts. She managed the household with good order: she was neither harsh nor severe, yet the home remained orderly. She disliked disciplining children with a stick. Whenever Cheng Xiang grew angry, she would speak up on someone’s behalf. But if one of her own children did wrong, she would not cover it up. She said, “Children fail to become capable because their mother conceals their faults, leaving them unaware of where they have gone wrong.” She was never indulgent in teaching them. When the children were only a few years old and stumbled while walking, she would scold them: “If you had walked carefully, how could you have fallen?” At mealtimes, she placed food beside the children…

When the child ate soup, [his family] would stop him, saying, “If you only want things your own way as a child, what will you do when you grow up?” When he argued with others, even if he was right, he would not press his advantage. He worried that he might fail to yield, not that he might fail to defend his position. For this reason, the two Cheng brothers, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, were never particular about food or clothing in their daily lives, and neither spoke harshly nor insulted others. This was the result of their upbringing.

When this lady was seven or eight, she recited the Book of Songs and learned that women did not go out at night. From then on, she never left the inner quarters. As an adult, she enjoyed writing but did not compose poetry or prose. She considered it deeply improper when she saw people sharing their writings and letters with others.

The Record of Promoting the Dao says: In his commentary on the Family hexagram, Cheng Yi wrote that in household life, among fathers, sons, and close kin, people often let affection override ritual propriety, and let love and favor harm what is right. Only by not abandoning sound principle for personal attachments can one act appropriately. Thus, the central teaching of the Family hexagram is that a household must be governed with authority if it is to prosper. The second line of the Marrying Maiden hexagram says that steadfastly maintaining quiet and uprightness means not straying from the proper path. People commonly take casual intimacy for granted, and so regard chastity and reserve as abnormal. These words were all spoken for women. The earlier examples bring out the fine conduct of wise women and virtuous mothers; the later examples make women’s standards and virtues clear. Such accounts must be recorded.

The Record of Eminent Officials states that Xin Ciying was upright and self-disciplined, and kept away from sensual pleasures. He and his wife treated each other with the respect of honored guests. Even in private, they maintained composed expressions, sat upright, and spoke sincerely. He admired Chao Youyuan and Sima Guang. Sima Guang was a man who held himself to ritual propriety and carefully avoided situations that might invite suspicion. He would not meet anyone without a hat on, not even servants or maids.

Cheng Mai, the prefect of Poyang, sent him fruit and silver, but he declined to accept them. During the upheaval of war and displacement, when he was struggling to make ends meet, he would not casually accept even a bowl of soup. The emperor said to him, “Your reputation for integrity has spread far and wide. Everyone says you took no salary while serving in Fujian.” Xin Ciying replied in a memorial, “If I had taken office to seek wealth, why would I have given up my salary? I simply dare not accept things that should not be accepted.” The emperor said, “If everyone were like you, would there be any need to worry that the realm could not be at peace?”

The Record of Promoting the Dao says, “When civil officials do not love money and military officials do not fear death, the realm will be at peace.” Yue Fei once said these words, and the emperor knew them too; he simply did not appoint him. As for the rise of Jianmu, it came originally from among the scholars. In all he did and said, he surely took as his guiding principle… [The original text ends here.]

On an auspicious day of the Shangyuan Festival in the dingwei year, the thirty-fifth year of the Wanli reign of the Great Ming, respectfully presented by Zhang Guoxiang, Celestial Master of the Orthodox Unity lineage, who received the transmission of the teachings, cultivated sincerity, aspired to the Dao, expounded the mysteries, promoted the teachings, and oversaw the affairs of Daoism throughout the realm.

The purpose is to revise and publish this book.

Records of the Propagation of the Dao (Hongdao lu)