《宋徽宗道德真经解义(章安)》Vol. 4

When governing through Wuwei (non-action), the people do not know how much effort their ruler has expended; they live peacefully and at ease.

The people are simple and sincere, living naturally. They have few selfish thoughts and desires, preserve their unadorned nature, and are content with the lives they already have.

But government orders become fussy and exacting, with inquiries into every matter. It is like picking through hair strand by strand, or counting grains of rice to cook a meal. This approach mistakes harshness for astuteness: it is what is called “scrutinizing governance.” The more detailed and severe the orders, the more the people will scheme and deceive. Their minds are harmed, and they find it harder to preserve their sincere and simple De.

Good fortune is hidden within misfortune, and misfortune lies in wait within good fortune. Who can know where they will ultimately lead?

What is clear emerges from darkness; tangible patterns take shape from what has no form. Intelligence and talent, too, may sometimes appear alongside illness and hardship. Even great wealth and status can bring calamity. Times never stand still, and people’s circumstances never remain constant. Since the changes that mark a thing’s beginning and end cannot be predicted, how could the fortunes and misfortunes that depend on one another follow any fixed rule?

Ease and adversity, hardship and success, good fortune and calamity alternate and recur, like a cycle without end. If one accepts the times and one’s proper place, letting fortune and misfortune unfold naturally when they arrive, then what could remain constant and unchanging?

Can there really be an absolutely unchanging “right”?

If we judge as right an opinion that agrees with yours and mine, then, since it already agrees with us, how can that serve to distinguish what is truly right? If we judge as right an opinion that differs from yours and mine, then…

The Imperial Commentary says: If you demand that others be the same as you before acknowledging them as right, then once they are the same, why correct them at all? If you demand that others be different from you before acknowledging them as right, then once they are different, why correct them at all? Who, then, is truly impartial in the world?

The minister explains: Once goodness is recognized as goodness, its opposite, what is not good, becomes apparent; once beauty is recognized as beauty, ugliness becomes apparent. If one can merge completely with the highest Dao without clinging to the search for reasons, what could “rightness” mean? Moreover, fortune and misfortune shift without fixed measure. Who, then, can decide what is absolutely right?

What is right can turn into the strange, and goodness can turn into the monstrous. The people have been trapped in confusion for a long time.

The Imperial Commentary says: All things in the world originally come from a single Qi—the fundamental energy that forms all things. What is considered right today may have been considered wrong yesterday; what was once met may later come together. The miraculous and the decayed transform into one another in an endless cycle. Thus the strange and the right give rise to each other, just as goodness and the monstrous change into one another. All this is the natural movement of a single Qi. People have lived in the world for a long time. Small confusions can lead them astray, while great confusion can alter their nature. When selfish desires prevail, people can no longer see the principle clearly. Fortune and misfortune depend on and transform into each other. If we still try to govern and instruct the people through meticulous scrutiny and harsh demands, how can they return to their original nature?

The minister explains: The right and the strange, goodness and the monstrous, and the opposing judgments people make about one another all arise from illusory distinctions; they are not constant principles. The people have been separated from their original nature for a long time. Unable to return to the root and merge with the Dao, they seek blessings with urgent insistence. If governance is excessively severe and one person’s views are treated as the right way, how could the whole world be made to conform to that person’s standards?

Therefore, the Sage is square, yet harms no one.

The Imperial Commentary says: “Square” means distinguishing and discerning things. True, great squareness has no edges; it is stable and does not shift, leaving no trace of deliberate distinctions between things.

The minister explains: Being square often means making distinctions. To be square without harming others is to merge completely with the myriad things, accord with the Dao, and remain undivided from the things around oneself.

The Sage is upright, yet not harsh.

The Imperial Commentary says: “Upright” means priding oneself on being pure. True, noble uprightness does not boast of its purity. It remains clear while embracing all things, and does not impose harsh restraints on others.

The sage is clear and still, standing apart from the myriad things, yet able to embrace them all. The sage does not deliberately restrain or oppress them.

True uprightness does not flaunt itself; true brightness does not dazzle.

The Imperial Commentary says: When uprightness flaunts itself, it breeds an air of superiority over others. When brightness dazzles, it invites the habit of self-praise. To be upright at heart while acting with humility and flexibility, to use one’s brightness while tempering its sharpness and returning to inward discernment—perhaps only the sage can do this. Ordinary people, however, are easily misled by outward splendor.

The Imperial Commentary continues: Some insist that strict correctness is the right way, like Zimo, who clung to what he called the middle way. Others insist that ease is the right way, like Zhongzi, who held fast to his own standards. They know only how to extend themselves, not how to yield; only how to display themselves, not how to remain concealed. This merely encourages the ills and customs of a decadent age, causing people to lose the sage’s fully rounded state. How could it be enough to set the world right? The sage’s way of setting the world right is no more than this.

The Minister Yi says: The greatest uprightness may appear crooked, because it accords with all things and changes along with them, yet never loses the uprightness of the Dao. When uprightness flaunts itself, it relies on its own correctness and looks down on others. The sage tempers sharpness and returns to inward discernment, blending with the dust and all things of the world while never straying from the Dao. How could the sage display this brightness outwardly? To be upright without flaunting it, and bright without dazzling: this is precisely the sage’s way of setting the world right.

Chapter 59: In governing the people and serving Heaven, nothing is better than restraint and conservation.

Emperor Huizong’s commentary says: Intelligence and knowledge are gifts of nature, while action, stillness, and thought belong to human activity. Only when action and stillness are measured, and thought does not wear us down, can human affairs be governed well. Do not bring intelligence to its utmost, or exhaust the use of knowledge; then you can follow the Way of Heaven. This is called “cherishing”—conserving and gathering the spirit. The primordial Qi bestowed by nature is stored within the body, with the kidneys as its seat. When a person is established upon an unassailable foundation and fills the source of wisdom, the voice emerges naturally. In this way, human affairs are governed and the principle of Heaven is fulfilled.

The minister’s explanation says: Action and stillness tire the body, while thought puts the mind and spirit to work. This shows that a person cannot cultivate himself. Using intelligence to its utmost and carrying knowledge to its limit show an inability to follow the Way of Heaven. When restraint is understood in both respects, the spirit is not depleted, and the mind and spirit can return intact to pure unity. Nothing is more important for governing human affairs and following the Way of Heaven. Thus the sage acts and rests without losing measure, thinks without being burdened, restrains intelligence, and does not cling to knowledge, becoming one with the Way of Heaven. This is called “cherishing”: the inner essence and Qi are stored deep within and kept from view; the foundation is firm and does not dissipate.

Only by knowing how to gather and restrain can one return early.

Emperor Huizong’s commentary says: To return only after losing one’s way is already too late. Rather than wait until one is lost before turning back, it is better to return early. Then the voice will not let one’s nature run unchecked, and one can return early.

The minister’s explanation says: When the voice is restrained, the spirit and Qi can be preserved without being depleted, so one returns early.

Returning early is called continually accumulating De.

Emperor Huizong’s commentary says: Returning is the root of De. By returning and coming to know oneself, what is already within oneself through the Way will accumulate day by day and grow ever more radiant.

The minister’s explanation says: By returning and coming to know oneself, De gathers within the heart. The earlier one returns, the greater the accumulation.

If De is continually accumulated, nothing cannot be overcome.

Emperor Huizong’s commentary says: What is already within oneself through the Way will accumulate day by day and grow ever more radiant.

The minister’s explanation says: By returning and coming to know oneself, De gathers within the heart. The earlier one returns, the greater the accumulation. If De is continually accumulated, nothing cannot be overcome.

The Imperial Commentary says: To be able to overcome everything is called “conquering.” Nothing that rules over all things and sets every activity in motion is beyond its power to overcome. Only De can do this.

The Minister’s Commentary explains: As De accumulates without cease, it grows ever more profound. When De is profound, the Dao can overcome selfish desires and bring one to a state of selflessness. Once selfless, one no longer clings to external things. When self and things are both forgotten, nothing remains that cannot be overcome.

When nothing remains that cannot be overcome, no one can know where its limits lie.

The Imperial Commentary says: When De reaches a state in which nothing can overcome it, it can meet all affairs without ever being exhausted. Who can know its limits?

The Minister’s Commentary explains: De can overcome everything because self and things are both forgotten. When both are forgotten, one returns to “utter nothingness,” the furthest realm of emptiness. How, then, could anyone know its limits?

Not knowing its limits, one can govern a state.

The Imperial Commentary says: When one understands and exhausts the boundless Dao, one can put all the affairs of the world to use with ease. How much more so can one govern a single state?

The Minister’s Commentary explains: Only by understanding the Great Dao and preserving the spirit can one govern a state. To govern the people and follow the Way of Heaven is to reach the utmost.

The foundation that allows a state to be established and endure can bring it lasting peace and stability.

The Imperial Commentary says: The Dao is the source of all things. One who has the Dao does not decline, even across ten thousand generations.

The Minister’s Commentary explains: The foundation of a state’s longevity is the Dao without limit. The Dao is constant and unchanging, and so it can endure.

This is the principle of tracing things back to their source, strengthening their roots, and attaining long life and lasting vision.

The Imperial Commentary says: The Dao is the mother of all things, and all things are its children. Nature is the root of the body, and the body is a branch of nature. Having come to know the “children,” all things, one must also hold fast to the “mother,” their source. Then one will never fall into danger throughout life, and so can endure. When the roots are deep, the branches are firm. When nature returns to its source, the body is made whole, and one can endure as Heaven and Earth do. In this way one can attain long life; shining alongside the sun and moon, one can remain in the world for a long time. People and all things pass away with change, while I alone endure. This is the Dao.

I believe that when human nature returns to the Dao, its roots grow deep. When the body is formed by the Dao, its foundation becomes firm. If the roots are not deep, Jing and Qi will be insufficient; if Jing and Qi are insufficient, the spirit will be unsettled; if the spirit is unsettled, the body will perish. Only with deep roots and a firm foundation can life endure and vitality be sustained.

Governing a great state, too, requires making its foundations firm. If the roots are not deep, Jing and Qi will be insufficient; if Jing and Qi are insufficient, the spirit will be unsettled; if the spirit is unsettled, the body will perish. Only with deep roots and a firm foundation can life endure and the state remain secure.

Chapter 60: Governing a Great State

Governing a great state is like cooking a small fish.

The Imperial Commentary says: When handling many affairs, if you keep stirring things up and repeatedly disturbing them, they are hard to bring to completion. If you treasure a great vessel but move it again and again, it is easily damaged. If you cook a small fish but keep turning it over, its flesh will break apart. If you govern a great state but frequently change its laws and decrees, the people will be confused. Thus, the way of governing prizes stillness and Wuwei (non-action); the people will then settle of their own accord.

The Minister’s Commentary says: When cooking a small fish, let it cook through naturally; there is no need for clever techniques or repeated handling. The sage governs through Wuwei, allowing all things to develop as they will. This is why governing a state is like cooking a small fish.

When the world is governed by the Dao, even ghosts and spirits cannot cause trouble.

The Imperial Commentary says: The sage is the master of the people and of all things. When there is no choice but to govern the world, the best course is to follow Wuwei. The Dao is always without action; govern the world by it, and there will be no one who cannot be at peace. The ghosts and spirits that move among human beings will also settle down and cease to cause trouble. This is why it says, “Ghosts and spirits cannot cause trouble.”

The Minister’s Commentary says: If the world is not governed by the Dao, people are easily ruled by selfish desires and false thoughts. Yin-Yang then falls out of balance, and ghosts and spirits seize the opportunity to cause trouble and display strange phenomena. When the ruler governs the world by the Dao, Heaven becomes clear; this is why it says that ghosts and spirits cannot cause trouble.

If the world is not governed by the Dao, people are easily ruled by selfish desires and false thoughts. Yin-Yang then falls out of balance, and ghosts and spirits seize the opportunity to cause trouble and display strange phenomena. When the ruler governs the world by the Dao, Heaven is clear and Earth is calm, and people live in harmony with the vital energy. Ghosts and spirits, too, find peace. The righteous Way prevails over evil forces, so ghosts and spirits cannot cause trouble.

It is not that ghosts and spirits lack supernatural powers; rather, their powers do not harm the people. Their powers do not harm the people, and the sage does not harm them either. Since neither ghosts and spirits nor the sage harm the people, their De (Virtue/Power) blends together, and in the end they return to a single source.

The imperial commentary says: Governing the world through the Dao, allowing everything to follow its own nature and refraining from acting recklessly, prevents the calamities of warfare and the punishments of killing. This is how the people are spared harm. At such a time, spirits and people alike remain unharmed, and blessings of De gather among humankind. The spirits need not display their efficacy or answer prayers; it is enough for them to bestow abundant blessings on the people. Thus, the spirits do not harm the people. Nor need the people resort to clever schemes: they need only eat their daily meals and live in peace. What harm could there be in that?

Zhang’an explains: When a ruler is constantly taking action and occupied with every kind of state affair, prohibitions and taboos multiply throughout the realm. Laws and decrees grow ever more numerous, punishments become harsh, taxes grow heavy, and the ruler rashly goes to war against enemy states. As a result, fields lie fallow, and the people become poorer and more distressed, struggling even to preserve their lives. All this comes from the ruler harming the people. If the ruler governs the world through the Dao, does not harm the people, lets the myriad things grow according to their nature, and does not disrupt the harmony of Yin-Yang, then all things will grow smoothly, each finding its proper order, and the Qi of Heaven and Earth will flow in harmony. How could the spirits harm people? They will only bestow abundant blessings on them. In this state, people and spirits live in peace with one another, and blessings of De gather on both sides without causing harm. This is the highest attainment of governance.

End of Volume Eight of Emperor Huizong’s Explanations of the Dao De Jing.

Volume Nine of Emperor Huizong’s Explanations of the Dao De Jing

The commentary was written by Zhang’an.

The De Jing

A Great State Lies Downstream, Chapter Sixty-One

A great state lies downstream.

The imperial commentary says: Everyone is drawn toward what is high, but those who seek only to rise often fall. The rivers and seas become the gathering place of all streams because they are skilled at remaining below them.

Emperor Huizong of Song says in his commentary: Everyone has the desire to seek and climb higher, but those who keep striving upward often fall. The rivers and seas become places where many streams converge because they are content to remain low.

His ministers explain: Water flows to low places, so streams gather there in great numbers. That is how the rivers and seas become vast.

The place where all things under Heaven come together is like the female of the world. The female often prevails through stillness, while the male takes stillness as the lower position.

Emperor Huizong explains: Everyone under Heaven uses strength to contend with external things. I alone am at ease in a place of gentleness, stillness, and non-contention. Who, then, could surpass me? This is the way to join with the world. The Dao De Jing says, “Know the masculine, yet keep to the feminine, and you will become the world’s stream.”

His ministers explain: Establishing oneself through strength turns all external things into adversaries. Gentleness does not contend, and stillness does not rush to act. Gentle and still, one does not clash with the myriad things. Thus one can become the feminine place of the world and master the way of joining with it.

Therefore, if a great state can humble itself before a small state, it can win the small state’s trust. If a small state can humble itself before a great state, it can gain the great state’s acceptance. Thus some states win others through humility, while others are accepted by them through humility.

Emperor Huizong explains: To gather something in, one often first lets it open out; to obtain something, one often first gives to it.

His ministers explain: Only by being humble can one obtain something. Those unwilling to humble themselves will surely be pressed down by external things and will often find themselves in a passive position.

If a great state is unwilling to humble itself, yet seeks to obtain something from a small state…

Emperor Huizong again cites the principle: To gather something in, one often first lets it open out; to obtain something, one often first gives to it.

His ministers again explain: Only by being humble can one obtain something. Those unwilling to humble themselves will surely be pressed down by external things and will often find themselves in a passive position.

What a great state seeks is no more than to absorb and care for a small state; what a small state seeks is no more than to submit to and serve a great state. Since both can obtain what they want, the great state should be all the more humble.

Emperor Huizong explains: The Way of Heaven descends and thereby shines brightly, so there is nothing it cannot cover. The Way of Earth occupies a low position yet receives what is above it, and so can bear all things. Humans model themselves on Earth, and Earth models itself on Heaven; therefore, the powerful should be all the more humble.

His ministers explain: If a small state does not humble itself before a great state, disaster will soon follow. If a great state can humble itself before a small state, few small states will be unwilling to submit. The failure to be humble most often occurs on the part of great states, so they should be all the more humble.

The Chapter “The Dao is the Repository of All Things,” Chapter Sixty-Two.

The Dao is the hidden source and mystery of all things.

Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty comments: Heaven has a hidden depth in the northwest, where vital essence and Qi gather and give rise to life. Earth has a hidden depth beneath the Yellow Springs, where Yin souls lie concealed and grow. People, too, have a hidden depth within their thoughts, where their supremely spiritual nature is held in reserve. Heaven, earth, and people each have their own hidden depths, yet all are encompassed by the Dao. The Dao cannot be exhausted, measured, or understood, which is why it is called the mystery of all things. Since the Dao is the source of all things, are all things forms in which the Dao makes itself manifest?

The officials of Zhang’an explain: The Dao is the source from which all things arise, yet it cannot be seen, so it is called the mystery of all things. All things lie within the Dao’s embrace. The Dao is everywhere and protects everything; its subtle workings are hidden and beyond measure. This is the meaning of “hidden depth.”

Good people cherish the Dao as a treasure.

Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty comments: Good people follow the Dao and make goodness part of their nature. In this way, they naturally gain wisdom like that of the spirits, and their hearts follow the standards of the sages.

The officials of Zhang’an explain: Good people know how to value the Dao. They therefore do not lose themselves among external things, and they understand where their true worth comes from.

Even those who are not good can receive the Dao’s protection.

Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty comments: If one departs from the way things naturally are, one is easily harmed; only by following their proper course can one preserve oneself. When one’s actions repeatedly go astray, one should quiet one’s nature and restore it to what is right. In this way, one can preserve oneself.

The officials of Zhang’an explain: “Protect” has the same sense as in “guardian and tutor” who guide and protect a ruler, and in “nurturing an infant,” caring for one as one would a baby. Even those who are not good can preserve their integrity and uprightness if they quiet their nature and act in accordance with what is right. This is precisely the Dao’s protection. Why, then, would the Dao abandon them? The Dao abandons none of the myriad things; this is why it is said to “protect” them.

Fine words can be used to build relationships and gain advantage, and respected conduct can be used to influence others. Even those who are not good—why would the Dao abandon them?

The Imperial Commentary says: “Words change like wind and waves, while actions may cause people to lose their true nature. These are not what the Dao values. Even beautiful, pleasing words and upright, admirable conduct can be enough to win people’s trust and make them willing to follow. How much more so when one understands the mysteries of the Great Dao, which encompasses and embraces all things without distinction? If so, what reason could there be to abandon those who are not good?”

The Minister’s Commentary says: “Beautiful words and noble conduct are still far from the Great Dao, yet they can already win people’s trust. If they can bring people benefit, how much more can the profound Dao, which encompasses all things and leaves nothing out? Even when someone is not good, the Dao sustains that person and does not abandon them.”

Thus, when appointing the Son of Heaven and the Three Dukes, the high officials who assist him, even the gift of a great jade bi disk with a four-horse chariot drawn up before it is not as valuable as sitting calmly and cultivating the Dao.

The Imperial Commentary says: “The foundation a noble person upholds is to cultivate the self and bring peace to the world. Even if the Son of Heaven and the Three Dukes possess fine jade and fine horses to attract worthy people, if they do not devote themselves to cultivating the Dao and improving themselves, they are abandoning themselves to accommodate others, and losing the foundation of governing themselves. It is better to sit calmly and cultivate the Dao—that is, to seek within oneself. The sages honor the Dao, and so the people follow them, as crowds flock to a market.”

The Minister’s Commentary says: “The Son of Heaven and the Three Dukes govern the world through the Dao. A great jade bi disk and four horses are precious things. If they devote themselves to pursuing such things, they abandon the Dao and accommodate external objects, and so cannot govern the world well. If they calmly cultivate the Dao, the world will be transformed; the people will follow, gathering like a crowd at a market. This, too, is simply a matter of seeking within oneself.”

Why did people of old esteem the Dao? Was it not because whoever sought it could attain it, and even those with offenses could thereby be pardoned? This is why the Dao is honored throughout the world.

The Imperial Commentary says: “What one seeks can be attained because the source of what is sought lies within oneself. People of old sought the Dao in the changes of Yin-Yang and the principles of calendrical reckoning, yet failed to find it because they searched for it among external things. The wicked can reform and become good, and the foolish can become wise—is this not how those with offenses can be absolved? The Dao is skilled at helping people; this is why it is honored throughout the world. An ancient book says: ‘Nothing in the world is more worthy of honor than the Dao.’”

I say: The Dao is skilled at rescuing people and abandons no one; it is also skilled at rescuing all things and abandons nothing. Thus, when people make a request, they can receive a response; even those who have sinned can be forgiven. For this reason, the Dao is the most precious thing under Heaven. Know that the root lies within yourself: seek within, and you can attain it. When your nature returns to its original state, your offenses are forgiven.

Chapter 63: Acting through Wuwei

Act with a Wuwei (non-action) attitude, handle affairs without causing disturbance, and experience things with a desireless mind.

The Imperial Commentary says: The substance of the Dao does not contrive, and so it can be Wuwei. The Dao has no fixed form, and so it can be free of affairs. The Dao has no desires, and so it has no flavor. The sage encounters particular things yet can experience the Dao’s emptiness; these three points make this clear.

I say: The Dao is Wuwei because it allows things to take shape according to their own nature; it is free of affairs because it allows things to develop in accordance with their circumstances. Because it is Wuwei, it does not contrive; because it is free of affairs, it does not cling to forms. Neither contriving nor clinging to forms, it is naturally plain and flavorless, without desire. How could those who busy themselves only with external affairs, lose themselves in pursuing worldly tastes and pleasures, and become burdened by their appetites, understand the essentials of embodying the Dao?

Great and Small, Many and Few

The Imperial Commentary says: “Great and small” refer to form; “many and few” refer to quantity. The forms and quantities of the myriad things are endless and cannot be bounded. The great is not necessarily many, and the small is not necessarily few. How, then, can any clear distinction be made between requiting resentment and requiting kindness? The sage sees all things as returning to the same “nothingness,” and so can bring about greatness.

I say: Great and small, many and few may concern form and quantity and differ from one another. But if kindness and resentment are treated alike, what distinction can there be?

Requite Resentment with De

The Imperial Commentary says: If rank and stipends are not enough to entice people, and punishments and humiliation are not enough to disgrace them, what resentment could there be? The only thing upheld is De (Virtue/Power).

The minister’s commentary says: When people become attached to external things, their minds and spirits are easily swayed by favor and disgrace, giving rise to resentment and grievance. If they can remain content and at ease, no longer distinguishing between self and other, resentment and grievance have no cause to arise. They esteem virtue and see nothing worth resenting. This is what it means to “repay grievance with virtue.”

When planning something difficult, begin where it is easy. When undertaking something great, begin where it is small. The difficult things under Heaven always begin with what is easy; the great things under Heaven always begin with what is small.

The imperial commentary says: A dike a thousand fathoms long may collapse because of an ants’ nest, and a house a hundred feet high may burn because smoke escapes through a crack in its chimney. When Bai Gui, who was skilled in flood control, inspected the dikes, he sealed the holes, and so there were no floods. When an old man took care to prevent fires, he sealed the cracks, and so there were no fires. Affairs under Heaven often begin in the tiniest details; by the time they reach their end, they are difficult to manage. Therefore, the sage deals with them early.

The minister’s commentary says: Affairs are often concealed in places people overlook, and the hardest part is planning at the outset. If one knows how to deal with them when they are easy and small, in the end nothing will go wrong. Once the first signs of a problem have begun to veer off course, it is often too late to put things right.

Therefore, the sage never undertakes what appears to be great, and so is able to accomplish what is truly great.

The imperial commentary says: By starting with what is small, one can accomplish what is great. If one waits until disorder has already taken shape before addressing it, will that not be too late?

The minister’s commentary says: By steadily accumulating small achievements, one can accomplish something great.

Those who make promises lightly often find them hard to keep. Those who regard things as too easy often encounter more difficulties. Therefore, the sage always approaches affairs as though they were difficult; in the end, nothing is difficult.

The imperial commentary says: Troubles are often hidden in the tiniest details. If one waits until they have taken shape before addressing them, will that not be too late?

The minister’s commentary says: By steadily accumulating small achievements, one can accomplish something great.

Disaster often lies hidden in the slightest details and strikes only when people let down their guard. In responding to the affairs of the world, the sage is always careful about details and dares not neglect them. He therefore does not act rashly at the outset, and in the end avoids calamities that cannot be undone. This is all because he has grasped the principle of “nonbeing.”

A minister explains: Making promises too readily may seem a small matter, yet it brings the calamity of losing others’ trust. Treating things as too easy and overlooking small details can also lead to many troubles. The sage considers things difficult, and so, in the end, nothing in the world proves difficult to handle. This is because he remains wary of the smallest details.

Chapter 64: What Is at Rest Is Easy to Maintain

When things are stable, they are easy to keep that way. When a problem has shown no sign of emerging, it is easy to plan for. When something is still fragile, it is easy to resolve; when it is still slight, it is easy to disperse. Therefore, act before matters arise and bring order before the situation falls into disorder.

The Imperial Commentary says: “Stable” is the opposite of “perilous”; “without signs” contrasts with having already taken visible shape; “fragile” contrasts with “firm”; and “slight” contrasts with “conspicuous.” If things are maintained while stable, they will not fall into danger. If plans are made before signs appear, problems will not take shape. The sage can discern the first signs of things as they arise. If something fragile is resolved in time, it will not become as difficult to handle as solid ice; if something slight is dispersed in time, it will not grow conspicuous. The worthy can also approach this state. When a cart is about to break through the city walls or a boat is about to sink, the sage has no need to display his ingenuity. The time to use wisdom is before disaster occurs. This is what is meant by “act before matters arise and bring order before the situation falls into disorder.”

A minister explains: “Stable” and “without signs” describe matters that have not yet taken visible shape; “fragile” and “slight” describe matters that are still very small. Addressing something before it takes shape is acting before it arises; bringing order to something while it is still slight is putting things right before the situation falls into disorder.

A great tree that takes both arms to encircle grows from a tiny sprout; a nine-tiered tower is built from baskets of earth; a journey of a thousand li begins with the first step beneath one’s feet.

The Imperial Commentary says: All things with form grow large through gradual accumulation from the small; all things that are high are grounded in what is low; and all things far away begin nearby. Their beginnings all lie in a time before the situation falls into disorder.

A tree large enough for a person to embrace with both arms grows from a tiny shoot; a nine-tiered platform is built up basketful by basketful of earth; and a journey of a thousand miles begins with the first step beneath one’s feet.

The Imperial Commentary says: All things with form grow from small beginnings into great ones; what is high must be built on what is low, and what is far must begin nearby. A task is often simple at the outset, but by the time it is nearly complete, it has grown large in scale. When the sage sees the beginning of things, he considers their eventual outcome; when he sees the slightest signs, he knows where events are headed. Therefore, he does not rush to seek blessings or take the lead in setting calamity in motion. He acts with care and composure, and so is often able to bring things to completion.

The Minister’s Commentary says: Trees illustrate growth from small to great, a high platform illustrates rising from low to high, and a journey illustrates going from near to far. Greatness, height, and distance all begin in what is slight. The sage succeeds precisely because he understands this principle.

Deliberately forcing action leads to failure; stubbornly holding on leads to loss. Therefore, the sage does not act recklessly and so does not fail; he does not cling stubbornly and so suffers no loss.

The Imperial Commentary says: The sage is not led about by affairs, and so does not fail because of them. He does not control things by relying on preconceived notions, and so suffers no loss. Those who are ignorant of the Way often make rules, weigh and reweigh their options, and stubbornly cling to their decisions. In this way they grow ever more distant from the Way. How could they avoid failure and loss?

The Minister’s Commentary says: Acting recklessly and hastening to succeed brings failure in its wake; clinging to the struggle and forcing an outcome brings loss in its wake. Only by refraining from reckless action can things come to fruition according to their own patterns, without failure. Only by avoiding stubborn attachment can one receive what may rightly be received, without loss.

Therefore, when people undertake things, they often fail just as they are on the verge of success.

The Imperial Commentary says: To stop halfway, abandon the journey midway, or begin with energy and later grow slack—these are common human failings. Thus, many things that seem on the verge of success ultimately end in failure.

The Minister’s Commentary says: Perhaps only the sage can carry things through from beginning to end. Ordinary people depart from principle when they act; how can their endeavors last? That is why their undertakings so often end in failure.

If, at the very end, one remains as careful as at the beginning, one will not ruin the undertaking.

Emperor Huizong of Song commented: “There are few who fail to make a beginning, but few who can persevere to the end. If one remains consistent throughout and continually renews oneself, what could one fail to accomplish by applying this principle to one’s undertakings?”

A minister explained: “If one remains consistent from beginning to end and exercises the same care as at the outset, one will not mishandle things.”

Emperor Huizong commented further: “If one remains consistent from beginning to end and continually renews oneself, what undertaking could one fail to complete? The sage pursues what is not pursued and does not prize rare goods. Learning without clinging to the deliberate pursuit of knowledge serves to correct the errors people commonly make.”

Emperor Huizong elaborated: “Those who covet profit harm themselves for the sake of external things. Those who devote themselves single-mindedly to learning may find their minds and spirits burdened by an excess of knowledge. How could such practices bring anyone to the state of Wuwei (non-action)? The sage does not let profit entangle the body; what the sage seeks is freedom from misguided desire. The sage stops once personal needs are met. Thus, rare goods are not prized, and human-made greed does not damage one’s innate nature. The sage’s ‘learning’ consists in not clinging to the pursuit of learning, but simply allowing the light already within to shine forth continually. In this way, the sage can correct the errors of others. When the Great Dao is obscure, even the worthy may stray from it—how much more so ordinary people? Helping people correct their errors and return to their nature is precisely what makes it possible, after casting aside learning that clings to knowledge, to live freely and without worry.”

A minister explained: “Human nature is complete in itself, so there is no need for covetous seeking. The principles inherent in human nature are already clear, so there is no need to cling to the pursuit of learning. When people forget that they are complete in themselves, their desires multiply, and they may even lose themselves. When they fail to see the clarity inherent in their nature, they may become learned in many things and burden their minds and spirits. The sage does not let profit entangle the self; what the sage seeks is freedom from misguided desire, and so rare goods are not prized. The sage does not let human-made desires damage innate nature; thus, the sage’s learning consists in not clinging to the pursuit of learning, and is used to correct the errors of others. An ‘error’ is a deviation from the Middle Way; to set such deviations right is to help people return to their nature.”

The sage uses this to help the myriad things follow their own nature, and does not dare to act presumptuously.

The sky is high above, the earth deep below, and all things differ from one another. Was this deliberately arranged by someone? They have simply grown naturally, each following its own nature. Helping all things follow their natural course enables each to fulfill its own nature. Deliberate interference, by contrast, brings failure, so the sage does not dare act recklessly. This is why the sage follows the Dao’s transformation and nourishment, rather than relying on cleverness to control all things.

A subordinate explains: Each thing has its own natural nature. The sage acts through the Dao of Wuwei (non-action), merely helping things follow their nature. Let what should grow grow, and let what should come to fruition come to fruition, without allowing human interference. Such interference leads to failure, so the sage does not dare act recklessly.

Chapter 65: Those of Old Who Excelled at Practicing the Dao

The rulers of ancient times who excelled at practicing the Dao did not seek to make the people clever and cunning; they sought to keep them simple and sincere.

The Imperial Commentary says: The people may be led to act in accord with the Dao without everyone needing to understand its principles. Those who excelled at practicing the Dao in ancient times simply guided the people to follow it. They returned people to their ordinary nature, enabling them to bear and follow the Great Dao without displaying cleverness; hence they were called “simple.” After the Three Dynasties, people abandoned a calm life of Wuwei and instead prized the idea of simplicity. They also multiplied ritual and musical systems to regulate people’s conduct, and used teachings of benevolence and righteousness to pacify their hearts. They intended in this way to make the people wise, calling it the governance of the world—but what could have caused greater disorder than this?

A subordinate explains: Since the Three Dynasties, instruction has grown ever more elaborate and ritual forms increasingly elaborate. By the end of the Zhou dynasty, the resulting ills had deepened as well. This was the consequence of striving too hard to make the people wise. Thus Laozi advocated keeping the people simple. “Simple” here does not mean harming the people. It means not deliberately pursuing a reputation for goodness or virtue, and not envying or striving after fame and profit. Each person rests within their proper place, does not damage their inborn nature, and lives according to their natural condition, without pretense or artifice. In this way, people can return to their ordinary state and recover their original simplicity.

The people are difficult to govern because their minds are cunning and their calculations too many.

The Imperial Commentary says: Great disorder often arises in the world, and its root lies in people’s fondness for cleverness.

The subject explains: If people rely entirely on cleverness to prevail, deceit will steadily increase over time. How could this bring good governance to the state?

Therefore, governing the state through cleverness brings it harm.

The Imperial Commentary says: As soon as laws are established, wrongdoing arises; as soon as orders are issued, deception follows.

The subject explains: When cleverness is prized, the people use deceit and hypocrisy to outdo one another, making the state difficult to govern. Cleverness, therefore, brings harm to the state.

Governing without relying on cleverness is what brings the state good fortune.

The Imperial Commentary says: Burn the tallies and break the seals, and the people will become simple. Tear apart the measuring vessels and snap the balance beams, and the people will stop competing and calculating.

The subject explains: Governing without relying on cleverness leaves the people simple and free of contention. This is the state’s greatest good fortune.

Understanding these two ways of governing is to grasp the guiding principle.

The Imperial Commentary says: Understand these two ways, and you will know how to tear apart the measuring vessels and snap the balance beams so that the people do not contend. Understand this, and you will know how to govern the state. The people will follow this way of acting and take it as their guiding principle.

The subject explains: When those in high positions understand the different results of governing with and without cleverness, the people will know what to follow and have a principle to guide them.

To understand and follow this principle constantly is called “Mysterious De” (profound and subtle Virtue). Mysterious De is deep and far-reaching, contrary to the ordinary ways of all things.

The Imperial Commentary says: “Mysterious” is the color of Heaven. To understand the principle constantly without applying cleverness is to accord with Heaven’s Virtue. This Virtue is unfathomably deep and inexhaustibly far-reaching; it stands apart from all things, and nothing can match it. Hence the phrase “contrary to things.”

The subject explains: To understand the principle and act without relying on cleverness is for the mind to return to a state without intent, and for knowing to return to a state unattached to knowledge. This is Mysterious De. Mysterious De is exceedingly deep and far-reaching; thus it runs counter to the ordinary ways of all things in the world and accords with the Dao.

Only then can one attain Great Accord: a state of following nature and reaching harmony.

“Following” means complying with the principles of Heaven. To reach “great compliance” is to discard clever schemes and artificial contrivances, following only the principles of nature. The Zhuangzi says that when people accord with Heaven and Earth, they unite with them in a deep, undivided way, seeming almost dull and unaware. This is called “Mysterious De” (profound and natural Virtue), which accords with “great compliance.” Seeming dull and unaware is precisely the result of letting go of clever schemes.

A minister explains: In an age when Mysterious De prevails, all things each follow their own nature without knowing why. This is called “great compliance.”

Chapter 66: The Rivers and Seas as Kings of the Valleys

The rivers and seas can become the places where the many streams and rivers converge because they are adept at occupying low positions. Thus they can receive all the waters.

The imperial commentary says: In undertaking affairs and establishing achievements, the one who occupies the highest position is king. “King” carries the meaning of drawing people to oneself and having them come to one. If a ruler can humbly place himself below, the people will come to him, just as water flows toward low ground.

A minister explains: The rivers and seas willingly remain in low places, so the many waters converge there. That is why they can become the greatest among the waters.

Therefore, if a sage wishes to stand above others, he first speaks with humility; if he wishes others to come to him, he is like water flowing toward low ground. If he wishes to go ahead of others, he first places himself behind them. In this way, although the sage occupies a high position, people do not feel burdened by him; although he goes ahead of them, they do not feel obstructed. Therefore, people throughout the world gladly choose him to lead them and do not grow tired of him.

The imperial commentary says: When the Book of Changes discusses the first line of the Zhun hexagram, it says, “Though honored, he humbly places himself beneath those of lower station, and wins the people’s hearts.” To win the people is to win their hearts. When someone occupies a high position without burdening others, it is because they are willing to follow him with ease. When he goes ahead without obstructing them, it is because he benefits many people. Everything such a person thinks and does wins people’s willing assent, and so they do not grow tired of him. The Book of Changes also says, “The people approve of those who possess virtue and ability.”

A minister explains: The sage speaks humbly, and people choose him to occupy the high position; so even when he is above them, they do not feel burdened. The sage places himself behind others, and people choose him to go ahead of them; so even when he is in front, they do not feel obstructed. The Book of Changes’ saying, “The people approve of those who possess virtue and ability,” speaks precisely to this principle.

The minister explained: The sage lowers his words, and people instead hold him in high regard. Thus he occupies a high position, yet the people do not feel burdened. The sage puts himself behind others, and people instead raise him to the front. Thus he takes the lead, yet the people suffer no harm. The people gladly raise him up and turn toward him, so they never grow weary of him.

Precisely because the sage does not contend with others, no one under Heaven can contend with him.

The Imperial Commentary says: If a person has admirable conduct yet can let go of the thought that they are admirable, who would fail to cherish them wherever they went?

The minister explained: Not contending means having no desire to prevail. The people under Heaven respond to him with a spirit of non-contention too, so what is there to contend over?

All Under Heaven Say “The Dao Is Great”—Chapter 67

People under Heaven all say, “The Dao I speak of is vast,” yet it seems unlike any particular thing. It is precisely because the Dao is vast that it does not seem like any particular thing. If it resembled something, it would already have become small.

The Imperial Commentary says: Whatever resembles a particular thing is limited; what can be compared with all things is vast. The Dao covers and bears all things, extending without bounds, so it seems unlike any particular thing. If the Dao resembled something, that would mean there were other things outside the Dao. How, then, could it be called vast?

The minister explained: Once something takes on a particular form and becomes an object, it cannot help but display some shape. What could the Dao resemble, when nothing exists outside it? Nothing is vaster than the Dao. If you describe the Dao as having some particular form, it appears small.

I have three treasures. I cherish them and hold fast to them without losing them.

The Imperial Commentary says: What differs from worldly opinion, yet can be held fast and not discarded, is what I cherish.

The minister explained: These things can be held fast and must not be lost, like treasures; they are not worldly opinions.

The first is called compassion.

The Imperial Commentary says: Loving all things is the practical expression of “benevolence.”

The minister explained: Treating all things with compassion means not harming life or damaging things, allowing all things to grow naturally.

The second is called frugality.

The Imperial Commentary says: Practicing frugality so that resources remain sufficient is the practical expression of “ritual.”

The minister explained: Frugality makes what one uses sufficient and prevents one from losing one’s nature by coveting external things. In this way, one neither wastes resources nor harms the people, and the people can naturally follow what is most fitting.

The third is called not daring to lead all under Heaven.

The Imperial Commentary says: To contend for the lead is to seek superiority over others, valuing strength and disregarding De.

I understand it this way: Respond to events without taking the initiative; be content to take the rear and occupy the lower position; value humility and seek no advantage over others. In this way, one can become the leader among the people.

Because one is compassionate, one can be courageous.

The Imperial Commentary says: King Wen of Zhou cared for the people as though their injuries were his own. When he became angry, he could bring peace to all under Heaven.

I understand it this way: When a ruler is compassionate, the people cherish him. They defend their ruler as they would a beloved father, and willingly strive for his victory. In this way, he can become the leader among the people.

Because one is compassionate, one can be courageous.

The Imperial Commentary says: King Wen of Zhou cared for the people as though their injuries were his own. When he became angry, he could bring peace to all under Heaven.

I understand it this way: The people cherish him because of his compassion. They defend their ruler as they would a father or elder brother, just as the limbs protect the head and eyes. In such circumstances, who under Heaven could oppose him?

Because one is frugal, one can be generous.

The Imperial Commentary says: In winter, the myriad things draw inward and store their strength; only then can they flourish and thrive in spring. If even Heaven and Earth cannot spend lavishly at all times, how much less can people?

I understand it this way: Only through frugality can one avoid extravagance and waste. When one is self-sufficient, one will not suffer want. By not letting the branches harm the roots, or the outer consume the inner, one can attain abundance.

Because one dares not claim first place under Heaven, one can become the leader among the people.

The Imperial Commentary says: To avoid contending with others yet excel at overcoming them—this is the Dao of Heaven.

The Dao is revered, and so can become the foremost of all things.

I understand it this way: Heaven and Earth, human society, and the spirits all prize humility. By being content with a lower position and not striving to be first, one can become the leader among the people.

Because one dares not claim first place under Heaven, one can become the leader among the people.

The Imperial Commentary says: To avoid contending with others yet excel at overcoming them—this is the Dao of Heaven.

The Dao is revered, and so can become the foremost of all things.

I understand it this way: Heaven and Earth, human society, and the spirits all prize humility. By being content with a lower position and not striving to be first, one can become the leader among the people.

Today, if one casts aside compassion and seeks only fierceness, casts aside frugality and seeks only abundance, or casts aside the rear and fights to be first, one will meet destruction.

The Imperial Commentary says: People know that fierceness can make them stronger than others, but do not know that compassion is what makes courage possible. They know that vastness can be used to impress the crowd, but do not know that frugality is what makes one abundant. They know that becoming the foremost among the people is worth pursuing, but do not know that being content to come behind others is the key. Such people are merely hard and forceful; in the end, they meet death.

One who is compassionate will prevail when taking up arms and fighting, and will be secure when defending.

The Imperial Commentary says: Those who are benevolent have no enemies under Heaven, and so their armies can win. The people cherish their ruler as hands and feet protect the head and eyes, and as children guard their father and elder brothers. They would rather give their lives than abandon him, so his defenses are secure.

Heaven wishes to aid someone, and so shelters that person with compassion.

The Imperial Commentary says: Those who resolve to practice benevolence receive inspiration in their hearts from Heaven. Those who resolve to act without benevolence have their ability to discern right from wrong taken away by Heaven. This is how Heaven aids and secures people.

Heaven wishes to aid someone, and so shelters that person with compassion.

The Imperial Commentary says: Those who resolve to practice benevolence receive inspiration in their hearts from Heaven. Those who resolve to act without benevolence have their ability to discern right from wrong taken away by Heaven. Heaven aids and shelters people through compassion. This also explains why compassion comes first among the “Three Treasures”—the three precious qualities spoken of by Laozi.

Chapter Sixty-Eight: Skilled in the Ways of a Warrior

One skilled in leading an army does not flaunt martial prowess.

The Imperial Commentary says: Flaunting force is a lesser way. A person of learning values aspiration and virtue, and upholds benevolence and righteousness. Confucius said, “I have not studied the conduct of warfare.”

One skilled in battle is not quick to anger.

The Imperial Commentary says: The best strategy in warfare is to frustrate the enemy’s plans; anger overwhelms thought.

One skilled at defeating an enemy does not contend with others.

The Imperial Commentary says: Contention goes against virtue. When armies fight to seize land, corpses cover the fields; when they fight to seize a city, bodies lie piled throughout its streets. Even then, victory and defeat may not be settled. By not flaunting force, one achieves true strength; by not being ruled by anger, one can respond well to anger; by not contending with others, one can dispel conflict. These three ways all arise from virtue, and so they are called “skillful.”

One skilled at employing others knows how to place himself beneath them.

The Imperial Commentary says: Even if his wisdom surpasses that of everyone under Heaven, he does not devise plans himself, but lets the wise plan on his behalf. Even if his abilities are sufficient to manage everything within the seas, he does not do everything himself, but lets the capable act on his behalf. Even if he is eloquent and can describe all things, he does not speak for himself, but lets those skilled in argument convey his words.

The Minister’s Commentary says: If one is skilled at treating others with humility, they will be willing to serve, and people throughout the world will help.

This is called the virtue of “not contending.”

The Imperial Commentary says: The capable act on his behalf; those skilled in speech and able to describe all things convey his words.

The Minister’s Commentary says: If one is skilled at treating others with humility, they will be willing to serve, and people throughout the world will help.

This is called the virtue of “not contending.”

Once De (Virtue) is stirred by a desire for fame, it becomes shallow and restless. Once knowledge arises from rivalry, it turns into cunning. I have never heard of a person whose talents and wisdom are complete, yet whose De is not displayed, who then goes out of their way to boast of themselves. They simply treat others with ease and harmony.

The minister Zhang An explains: Not showing off one’s courage, not giving way to anger, not competing for strength, and willingly taking the lower position—these express De; they are not things done deliberately.

This is called being skilled at drawing on the strength of others.

Emperor Huizong of Song comments: Let those who are clever fully exercise their powers of observation and discernment, and let those with plans and abilities make full use of their strengths. The person above them, however, does not display their own cleverness.

The minister Zhang An explains: By restraining one’s own cleverness and not relying on one’s own plans, one can fully bring forth the cleverness and resourcefulness of everyone under Heaven.

This is called being in accord with the Dao (the Way). It is the highest state since ancient times.

Emperor Huizong of Song comments: To follow what is natural and act without contrivance is the Dao of Heaven. By not contending and being skilled at employing others, one can be in accord with the Dao of Heaven. To be in accord with the Dao of Heaven is already to have reached the highest state, beyond which there can be no further ascent. Hence it is called “the highest state since ancient times.” “Ultimate” means the utmost point; the very top of a piece of timber is called the “roof ridge.”

The minister Zhang An explains: The Dao of Heaven restrains what is high and supports what is low. To have ability yet willingly take the lower position and refrain from contention is called being in accord with the Dao of Heaven. To be in accord with the Dao of Heaven is to become one with Heaven; this is the highest state of the Dao, so it is called “the ultimate since ancient times.” Thus, when two armies face each other and wage war, the side that acts from compassion will prevail.

Emperor Huizong of Song comments: When sages take up arms, it is to rescue the people from deep distress; they merely eliminate oppressive forces. They use divine martial power to put an end to killing and cherish compassion as a treasure. Through compassion they transform the world, and no one fails to turn toward them; through justice they make themselves known to the world, and no one fails to respect them. This is called constant victory.

The minister Zhang An explains: Making killing and conquest the foremost aim is the common practice of warfare; acting from compassion to rescue the people is the moral purpose of warfare. The side that feels compassion for the people often prevails. This is how the humane wage war, and so they can achieve victory without fighting.

My words are easy to understand and easy to put into practice, yet among all the people under Heaven, no one can truly understand them or put them into practice.

The Imperial Commentary says: The Great Dao is bright and manifest, and so is easy to see. Put into words, it is therefore easy to understand. The essentials of the Great Dao are simple and easy to hold to, so they are also easy to put into practice. Mencius said, “The Dao is like a great road—is it really so hard to know?” The Dao itself is not difficult, and there is nothing under Heaven that cannot be done. What makes it seem difficult or impossible is simply not knowing to turn back and look for the cause within oneself.

The Minister’s Commentary says: The words of the sages do no more than illuminate the Great Dao and clarify the principles of things. Their teachings are grounded in what is inherent in human nature and life, and aim to dispel confusion. Turn inward and seek, and you can understand; it is neither difficult to comprehend nor hard to put into practice. But people abandon what is near for what is far, pursue details and lose sight of the root, and seek outside themselves. They become absorbed in a profusion of words and affairs, and so cannot find the root. That is why they cannot understand or put the teachings into practice.

Words have a root; action has a guiding principle.

The Imperial Commentary says: Words are endless, but their root is principle. Affairs are inexhaustible, but the Great Dao is their guiding principle. Seek by following the principles of things, and act in accordance with the Great Dao: then nothing under Heaven will be difficult.

The Minister’s Commentary says: Words take principle as their root. Truly understand the principle, and there is no need to cling to words; the principle is the root. Action takes the Great Dao as its guide. Truly realize the Great Dao, and you can reach a state of acting without delusion; particular affairs are only details.

It is precisely because people lack true understanding that they do not understand me.

The Imperial Commentary says: Those with shallow insight know nothing beyond books and written words. Though they may seem knowledgeable, they have no true understanding—how could they know the Great Dao?

The Minister’s Commentary says: People do not even understand that words take principle as their root and action takes the Dao as its guide. How, then, could they understand me? To truly understand me is to understand the Great Dao.

Those who understand me are few; that is why I am esteemed.

Actions that rise above worldly convention often draw criticism from others; thoughts that are distinctive often astonish the people. For this reason, some regard what is rare and seldom seen as precious.

The minister explains: Our Dao (the Way) is vast and boundless, so very few truly understand it. Because few understand it, it appears precious. What is precious is the Dao itself; it does not depend on rank or title to make it noble. Its dignity is inherent.

Thus, the sage wears coarse cloth, yet keeps jade within. “Keeping jade within” is a metaphor for the sage’s inner Virtue (De) and wisdom.

The imperial commentary says: The sage lives quietly among the people, neither showing off nor making a display of fame.

The minister explains: A person of the Dao does not boast of outward appearances, but withdraws into a quiet and secluded place.

Chapter 71: Knowing That You Do Not Know

Knowing that there is something you do not know is wisdom.

The imperial commentary says: The subtlety of the utmost Dao lies deep in darkness, while its ultimate reaches are utterly still and unformed. Ordinary knowledge can grasp only its exterior, never penetrate its inner depths. Such understanding is shallow, while what it cannot comprehend is profound. To know that ordinary knowledge cannot fully understand the utmost Dao is to truly understand its ultimate nature; that is why this is called wisdom.

The minister explains: When the mind clings to some fixed understanding, it departs from the Dao. Only by returning to a state free of attachment to distinctions of knowledge can one be considered wise.

Not knowing that there is something you do not know, yet believing that you know, is a flaw.

The imperial commentary says: Not understanding the subtlety of the utmost Dao, yet believing that you do…

The minister explains: When the mind clings to some fixed understanding, it departs from the Dao. Only by returning to a state free of attachment to distinctions of knowledge can one be considered wise.

Not knowing that there is something you do not know, yet believing that you know, is a flaw.

The imperial commentary says: Those who do not understand the subtlety of the utmost Dao know only what is coarse and shallow; those who do not understand its ultimate reaches know only the branches and outermost details of things. Such people are led along by tangled affairs and entangled by external things, moving day by day toward a path of anxiety and trouble. That is why this is a flaw.

The minister explains: Not understanding the Dao, yet believing you understand it, means knowing only external things. To mistake false understanding for true knowledge is a serious flaw.

Only by recognizing a flaw as a flaw can one avoid being trapped by it.

The imperial commentary says: One who knows that they are ignorant is not utterly ignorant; one who knows that they are confused is not utterly confused. Those who are truly confused never awaken throughout their lives; those who are truly ignorant never gain insight.

The minister explains: If you have a flaw but do not know you have it, it is difficult to remedy. Only by recognizing your flaw can you avoid being trapped by it.

The sage has no troubles because he regards “knowing” itself as a failing to be guarded against. He remains in a state as if he knew nothing, and so has no troubles.

The Imperial Commentary says: The sage follows nature and does not prize mastery of worldly affairs. He establishes the root and understands that principle can reach the divine; this is true wisdom. Yet in daily life he still appears not to know, and so is not troubled.

Minister Kezhi says: The sage has no troubles precisely because he possesses true wisdom. He regards the belief that one knows as a failing, and often maintains an attitude as if he knew nothing. Thus he has no troubles.

The People Do Not Fear Authority (Chapter 72)

When the people do not fear authority, severe calamity will befall them.

The Imperial Commentary says: Petty people treat small evils as insignificant and refuse to rid themselves of them. Their wrongdoing therefore accumulates until it can no longer be undone. The Book of Changes says that wearing stocks and suffering injury to the ears is an ominous sign.

Minister Yi says: Because the people fear nothing, they will ultimately fall into calamity.

Do not make the place where you dwell cramped.

The Imperial Commentary says: A dwelling is where one’s nature comes to rest. Human nature is vast and boundless and should not be constrained. Those of narrow understanding cannot speak of the Dao because they have made the dwelling of their own heart and nature cramped. If one can expand and enrich one’s nature, it can fill Heaven and Earth and encompass the Six Directions (above, below, and the four quarters); there is nowhere it cannot contain. The Mencius says, “Dwell in the broadest abode under Heaven.”

Minister Yi says: The dwelling of one’s nature is the broadest abode under Heaven. People entangle themselves day after day with external things and falsehoods, and their hearts and nature become blocked and obscured, confined to a corner. That is why their dwelling becomes cramped.

Do not despise your own life.

Life is formed through the gathering of Qi (vital energy). Human life shares its origins with the birth and growth of all things. If people become weary of their own lives, what they do during the day will deplete them and bind their minds and spirits. When this happens repeatedly, the primordial Qi that nourishes life at night becomes insufficient. To preserve primordial Qi, maintain harmony between Yin and Yang, and avoid dying before one’s time is possible precisely because one does not grow weary of one’s life.

An explanation by a minister: Human life comes from the Dao (the Way), and at its root is one with it. When we are not pulled along by external things, we can share in the birth and growth of all things. Human nature is stirred by emotions, and emotions change in response to external things. As a result, primordial Qi dissipates, the spirit weakens, Jing (essence) and Qi are depleted, and the body declines. Life then becomes difficult to preserve, though people do not realize that they are growing weary of it. Only by holding fast to unity and returning to simplicity, preserving Jing and Qi and nurturing the spirit until one abides with the Dao for a long time, can one be said not to grow weary of life.

Precisely because one does not grow weary of life, life will not become wearisome.

A commentary says: Calamity and good fortune are always brought upon oneself.

An explanation by a minister: Because one does not grow weary of one’s life, life will not become wearisome.

Therefore, the Sage knows himself but does not make a show of himself; he cherishes himself but does not exalt himself. So he lets go of one side and chooses the other.

A commentary says: The Sage knows himself but does not flaunt his abilities. He cherishes himself but does not claim nobility or place himself above all things. Such a person lives among external things without harming them, and they cannot harm him. He follows nature and is content to dwell in peace, so he has no worries. What power or anger, then, is there to fear? The reason the Sage lets go of one side and chooses the other can thus be understood.

I explain: The sage’s spirit is complete within, so the sage naturally understands themself. “Does not display themself” means not relying on oneself to boast before others. The Dao is present within me, so I naturally cherish myself. “Does not regard themself as noble” means that self and things can both be forgotten: what reason would I have to think myself nobler than all things? To consider one’s dwelling narrow and reject the life one possesses is an attitude of displaying oneself and regarding oneself as noble. Its opposite is the attitude of “not displaying oneself and not esteeming oneself.”

Chapter Seventy-Three: “Daring to Act Boldly Leads to Death”

To force one’s way ahead through sheer boldness invites death. The courage to hold back and refrain from acting rashly, by contrast, can preserve life.

The Imperial Commentary says: The strong belong to the category that tends toward death; the weak belong to the category that tends toward life. Those who boldly press ahead know only how to be fierce, not when to yield. This is not true ability; it can instead bring about their own ruin. Thus Zilu, a disciple of Confucius, delighted in boasting of his courage, and Confucius said that he lacked qualities worth valuing. Those who have the courage not to act rashly understand how to put themselves last. Being able to take the rear is precisely the way to move to the fore. The Liezi says that among the constant principles of the world is softness.

I explain: To know only how to be fierce easily leads to brutality and a cruel disposition, treating others as though they were mere weeds. As a result, one’s actions often end in killing. Those who know how to take the rear do not underestimate their opponents. They are benevolent in disposition and take the people’s safety to heart, so their actions often preserve life.

Of these two ways of acting, one may be beneficial and the other harmful.

The Imperial Commentary says: To hold to something may lead to error; to go against something may, in turn, prove fitting.

I explain: Boldness that kills is a specific tactic of warfare; the courage to hold back and refrain from rash action is the principle of warfare. Their benefits and harms can be seen from this. Yet circumstances change without any fixed pattern, so a course of action that seems proper may go awry, while one that seems to go against the norm may prove fitting.

What Heaven abhors—who can know the reason for it?

The Imperial Commentary says: Those who differ from worldly convention may perhaps accord with the Dao of Heaven. What people regard as beneficial, Heaven may abhor. Who can know Heaven’s intent with certainty?

I explain: Circumstances change without any fixed pattern, so a course of action that seems proper may go awry, while one that seems to go against the norm may prove fitting.

Who can know why Heaven loathes what it loathes?

The Imperial Commentary says: Those who seek what differs from what ordinary people desire often accord with the Dao of Heaven. What people regard as beneficial may be precisely what Heaven loathes. Who can judge Heaven’s will by following human likes and dislikes?

The Minister’s Commentary says: The use of force and killing is what people regard as beneficial. Heaven, however, loathes killing, because Heaven’s De (Virtue) cherishes the nurturing of life. People see only the benefits before them and do not know what Heaven loathes. Hence the question: “Who can know why?”

Therefore, even the sage treats Heaven’s will with care and does not dare take it lightly.

The Imperial Commentary says: Those who follow the Dao of Heaven are preserved; those who go against it move toward ruin. Even the sage dares not alter this principle.

The Minister’s Commentary says: When Yu set out against the Three Miao, he heeded Yi’s counsel and acted with such caution. This shows how difficult the matter was. Thus the sage strives to accord with the Dao of Heaven and dares not defy it on his own.

The Dao of Heaven does not contend with the myriad things, yet is skilled at bringing them into accord.

The Imperial Commentary says: When the myriad things come into being, the Dao of Heaven lets them grow without pushing them away. When they pass into extinction, it follows their transformations without obstructing them. This is called “not contending.” The myriad things wax and wane, become full and empty; the Dao of Heaven moves along with their changes. Though the myriad things are many, they all receive Heaven’s mandate. This is how, without contending, it can bring them into accord.

The Minister’s Commentary says: As the myriad things grow, they are allowed to grow naturally; as they perish, they are allowed to perish naturally. The Dao of Heaven need not contend with them. All things receive Heaven’s protection and its mandate. This is how the Dao of Heaven is skilled at bringing them into accord.

The Dao of Heaven does not speak, yet responds aptly to the myriad things.

The Imperial Commentary says: What has Heaven ever said? It reveals signs through the changing patterns of thunder and lightning, wind and rain, and makes outcomes known through good fortune and calamity. Its responses are exact, like a shadow following its form.

The Minister’s Commentary says: Good deeds bring good fortune, while evil deeds invite calamity; the consequences that correspond to good and evil are exact to the smallest measure. Such a response needs no summons; it comes of itself.

The Imperial Commentary says: Since the myriad things all receive Heaven’s mandate, does Heaven, which issues that mandate, really need anyone to summon it? The myriad things are intricately interwoven, and Heaven has its own way of arranging their destinies. Heaven moves with unceasing vigor; it simply allows a single Qi to flow naturally.

A subject goes when summoned; this is a subject’s duty. Heaven governs the fate of all things and holds the highest position. Who can summon Heaven? The primordial Qi between Heaven and Earth moves of its own accord. Who could command Heaven’s destiny to change? Heaven’s movement is vigorous and never ceases; it simply lets the Qi run its natural course.

A calm and open state of mind makes one skilled at planning.

The Imperial Commentary says: By remaining in what is level and easy, one can recognize danger.

The subject’s explanation says: Keeping to what is level and easy allows one to be open and at ease; recognizing danger makes one skilled at planning.

Heaven’s net is vast and boundless. It looks loosely woven, yet nothing slips through.

The Imperial Commentary says: A net woven tightly but with gaps is a human arrangement. Heaven’s net may look wide and loose, but it has no real gaps. When good or evil deeds accumulate to a certain extent, blessings or calamities arrive according to their kind; thus Heaven’s net leaves nothing out. To win only after fighting, or to receive a response only after speaking, is the human way. Heaven does not contend, yet excels at winning; it does not speak, yet brings a response. When people summon it, it arrives. People find Heaven’s Way hard to understand, yet Heaven’s Way arrives naturally, without being summoned. To be open and at ease while also skilled at planning is a state only a sage can embody. Thus the sage neither pursues profit nor flees calamity, and remains at all times in a position of benefit without harm. In this way, the sage accords with the virtue of Heaven’s Way, unlike those who force their way forward.

The subject’s explanation says: Heaven’s Way covers all things and shows no favor to good or evil. It is vast and boundless; who can know its limits? Calamities and blessings, omens of disaster and signs of good fortune, all arrive according to their kind. Though the time of their fulfillment is uncertain, retribution ultimately leaves nothing out; hence the words “nothing slips through.”

Regarding the phrase “the people ordinarily do not fear death,” the subject’s explanation says: Heaven’s Way covers all things and shows no favor to good or evil. It is vast and boundless; who can know its limits? Calamities and blessings, omens of disaster and signs of good fortune, all arrive according to their kind. Though the time of their fulfillment is uncertain, retribution ultimately leaves nothing out; hence the words “nothing slips through.”

Chapter Seventy-Four: The people ordinarily do not fear death. How, then, can they be frightened with death?

Emperor Huizong of the Song commented: If the people can settle into an ordinary life, they will feel that living is worth enjoying. If they lose that security, what kind of death could they still fear? Sawing people apart, executing them after marking out the line with an ink cord, or killing them with a hammer and chisel—these are all ways of using death to frighten the people. Yet the people will still risk death to break the law, and in the end, the threat will not change them.

A minister explains: The people have forgotten to cherish themselves and lost the means of preserving their lives. As social conditions worsen and the people fall into hardship, they break the law and defy prohibitions, until even family members can no longer protect one another. They live amid suffering, so emaciated that they collapse in ditches. A life like this is worse than death. That is what it means to say the people do not fear death: their lives have become so miserable. When rulers fail to act in accordance with the Dao (the Way), driving the people to the point where they do not even fear death, yet still hope to frighten them with executions and thereby bring about good governance, is that not a difficult task?

If the people always fear death, and someone nonetheless insists on doing something contrary to the norm, must I seize and kill him? Who would dare do such a thing?

Emperor Huizong of the Song commented: When the people throughout the realm take pleasure in living, they will naturally weigh the consequences of breaking the law. Only then can those who speak strange doctrines be punished and abnormal conduct prohibited. The offense of violating the law, as Xun Qing (that is, Xunzi) described it, was already a grave one.

A minister explains: When the people know that living is worth enjoying, they will know that death is frightening. Once they fear death, they will naturally weigh the consequences of breaking the law.

Ordinarily, officials specifically charged with executions carry them out. To kill someone in place of those responsible for executions is like taking an axe in place of a master carpenter and cutting wood.

Emperor Huizong of the Song commented: The ruler above should practice Wuwei (non-action), allowing people throughout the realm to fulfill their own duties. Those below, the ministers and subjects, should act and serve the realm. This principle cannot be changed. If a ruler kills in place of the officials responsible for executions, it is like taking an axe in place of a master carpenter. In doing so, he confuses the duties of those above and below and violates the constant Way. The ruler then becomes someone governed by others; how can he still govern them? The Book of Documents says that King Wen did not take all affairs of government, criminal cases, and matters requiring careful attention into his own hands, but left them to the officials and local administrators in charge. That is precisely the principle.

A minister explains: Wuwei is the ruler’s duty; active service is the minister’s duty. The ruler is honored and the minister is subordinate, and each has a distinct role. If the ruler takes over another’s responsibilities, he violates the constant Way and ends up being governed by others. How, then, can he govern them? The Book of Documents says that King Wen did not take all affairs of government, criminal cases, and matters requiring careful attention into his own hands, but left them to the officials and local administrators in charge. That is precisely the principle.

I hold that "non-action" (wuwei) is the principle the ruler should follow, while active doing (youwei) is the duty that ministers should bear. The ruler is honored and the ministers are humbled, and each has a fixed sphere of responsibility that must not be confused. The ruler relies on ministers to accomplish affairs of state, and the ministers, by devoting themselves to their work and respectfully assisting the ruler, allow the state to be well governed.

The state establishes fixed penal law, and those charged with executing capital punishment carry it out. If someone oversteps their office and takes over this killing, the taking of life falls outside the law, and those punished may not receive sentences that fit their crimes. This is like wielding the axe in place of a master carpenter, which is more likely to injure oneself.

Few who take the place of a master carpenter at cutting wood avoid injuring their own hands.

The imperial commentary says: If one who substitutes for the carpenter at cutting wood cannot avoid injury, how much more so one who oversteps his office to carry out executions? For this reason the ancients valued non-action. When the ruler practices non-action, those who handle concrete affairs can each bear their own responsibility.

I hold that to do what is not one's own duty is to neglect one's office. A carpenter works with axe and chisel, and if someone else takes over the work, the hand is likely to be hurt. Those who govern punishment are responsible for administering the penalties, and if others take their place, the penalties may be abused and the common people harmed. When the common people are harmed, in the end this harms oneself as well.

The Chapter on the Hungry People (Chapter 75)

The people go hungry because those above them take too much in taxes, so the common folk do not have enough to eat.

The imperial commentary says: When taxes are heavy, many fields are left uncultivated, and the people therefore lack grain.

I hold that the common people rely on the five grains for sustenance. When those above take too much, the people's food supply will be insufficient.

The people are hard to govern because those above them issue too many commands and interfere too much, so the popular mood becomes cunning and crafty, and governance becomes difficult.

The imperial commentary says: When affairs of state are complicated, deceitful and hypocritical conduct increases, and the people lose their simplicity.

I hold that the more those above interfere and the more numerous their commands, the more cunning the people become in responding to them, and therefore the harder they are to govern.

People take death lightly because they overvalue the enjoyment of life, and so in the end they do not cherish their lives.

The imperial commentary says: Placing too much value on enjoyment drives people to pursue profit intensely, indulge themselves, and commit depraved and extravagant acts, doing whatever they might do.

I hold that when one craves the enjoyments of life excessively, desire has no limit. Such people harm their own lives and do not cherish themselves.

Only those who do not place excessive importance on nourishing life and enjoyment, and who do not single-mindedly chase their desires, will not take life lightly.

The Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) and the subordinate's explanation (chenxia jieshuo) are rendered below as headings-free passages, with the chapter heading kept as the original's section title.

Excessive cherishing of life and an overly heavy emphasis on nourishing it lead one to pursue desires with great intensity. Conduct becomes dissolute and deviant, extravagant and unrestrained, and one will stop at nothing.

The subordinate's explanation: To value life excessively is to pursue desires without end, which harms the self, yet one fails to understand how to truly cherish oneself.

Only by not treating nourishing life (yangsheng) as a deliberate goal is one superior to those who simply cherish life above all.

The Imperial Commentary quotes the Zhuangzi: One who understands the nature of life does not pursue what is unnecessary to life. Not deliberately seeking to nourish life is because one can set aside affairs and does not treat life as an object of attachment. When affairs are set aside, the body does not grow weary; when attachment to life is forgotten, the spirit is not harmed. When the body is preserved and the spirit is restored to fullness, one can become one with the Dao (the Way) of Heaven, and therefore this is superior to simply cherishing life. Valuing life is better than despising death, but forgetting one's attachment to life is better still than valuing it. To apply this principle of preserving life to the governance of the common people is to lighten taxes and simplify punishments, so that every household has sufficient provisions and everyone has enough food and clothing. Clarifying the ranks of official caps and garments means the common people will not transgress the rites. This is the highest achievement that a sovereign's governance can reach.

The subordinate's explanation: "Not deliberately seeking to nourish life" means following the natural principle of things and not acting deliberately for the sake of life. Because one is not attached to one's own life, life is often preserved; the body is not worn down by affairs, and the spirit suffers no depletion. Therefore, understanding that life is precious is indeed superior to despising death, but if one does not know that following what is natural and preserving life is fundamental, one has not yet grasped the Way of nourishing life.

Chapter 76: On Human Life

When a person is alive, the body is soft; after death, it becomes stiff. When grass and trees are growing, they are tender; once withered, they become dry and hard. Therefore, the hard and unyielding belong to the category of death, while the soft, weak, and yielding belong to the category of life.

The Imperial Commentary says: All things carry Yin qi (vital energy of Yin) on their backs and embrace Yang qi, and when the Yin and Yang qi blend, they form harmony. The function of Yang qi is to make things grow, while the function of Yin qi is to make things wither. When Yin qi reaches its season of withering, the harmonizing qi of Yin and Yang disappears. Therefore it is said that the hard and unyielding belong to death, and the soft, weak, and yielding belong to life.

Chapter 77: The Way of Heaven

Minister Yi says: Softness and weakness are the means by which the Dao (Dào) takes effect, and so they belong to the side of life. Those who are forceful and domineering often do not come to a good end, so they belong to the side of death. To move toward death is to lose the harmonious Qi (Qì) and to go against the normal course of life, until one becomes rigid and unyielding.

Therefore, one who relies on force in warfare cannot win.

The Imperial Annotation says: When two armies meet in battle, the side that is grieved in its heart is the one that is able to win.

Minister Yi says: Those who rely on force to prevail will certainly meet someone who can overcome them. Those who are forceful often do not come to a good end, so they belong to the side of death. To move toward death is to lose the harmonious Qi and to go against the normal course of life, until one becomes rigid and unyielding.

Therefore, one who relies on force in warfare cannot win.

The Imperial Annotation says: When two armies meet in battle, the side that is grieved in its heart is the one that is able to win.

Minister Yi says: Those who contend by strength will certainly be surpassed by someone. A tree that grows thick and hard will be cut down.

The Imperial Annotation says: Paulownia and catalpa trees a handful or so in girth are all valued and carefully nurtured by everyone. Yet once they grow thick and hard, they too will be felled.

Minister Yi says: A tree that is hard and strong will be cut down.

Thus, what is hard and strong dwells in a lower position, while what is soft and weak comes to occupy the higher one.

The Imperial Annotation says: Softness can overcome hardness, and weakness can overcome strength. The subtle principle of Laozi's Dao-art lies precisely here. The Zhuangzi says that gentleness, humility, and dwelling below are to be taken as the outward standard.

Minister Yi says: Laozi takes softness and weakness as the foundation, and the mystery of his Dao-art lies precisely here.

Chapter 77: The Way of Heaven

Is not the Way of Heaven like the drawing of a bow? The upper end of the string is pressed down, and the lower end is raised up. What is excess is reduced, and what is insufficient is supplemented.

The Imperial Annotation says: The Dao (Dào) itself has no increase or decrease, yet the myriad things have fullness and emptiness. Pour into it and it never overflows; draw from it and it never runs dry. This is the principle that the sage holds fast to. When the Dao is realized within the myriad things, it appears as heaven and earth having fullness and emptiness, waxing and waning with the seasons. How much more so is this true of human beings? The Way of Heaven takes the middle as its highest standard. What is high is pressed down so that it does not become excessive; what is low is raised up so that it does not become deficient. What is about to arrive is advanced, and what has already succeeded withdraws behind. The four seasons move on, each following its proper order.

Fullness and deficiency alternate and cycle, and when a thing reaches its extreme it turns into its opposite. This is simply the natural order. What rises above the norm and has surplus is excess, so it must be restrained and reduced. What is low and lacking is depleted and empty, so it must be supported and made up. This is all natural principle. Therefore the Dao of Heaven (Tiandao) is like drawing a bow: when the string rises too high it is pressed down, and when it sits too low it is raised, until balance is reached.

The Dao of Heaven reduces what is excessive and supplements what is insufficient.

The Imperial Commentary says: arrogance and self-satisfaction invite loss, while humility brings benefit. This is the Dao of Heaven.

Minister Yi's commentary says: the Dao of Heaven dislikes fullness, so it reduces the excess, and it loves humility, so it supplements the insufficient.

Human conduct, however, is not like this. People often take from those who lack and offer it to those who already have more.

The Imperial Commentary says: people's hearts tend to shun those of low standing and to exalt those of high rank. They bully those who stand alone without help, yet they fear the noble and powerful.

Minister Yi's commentary says: they oppress those who are already lacking, diminishing them further to serve their own gain. And they fear the wealthy and powerful, offering them tribute and flattery to win their favor.

Who in the world can reduce what is excessive and supplement what is insufficient? Perhaps only the Dao can do so.

The Imperial Commentary says: one does not bully those who stand alone without help but shares one's goods with them, and one does not fear the noble and powerful but cuts away the surplus of the rich. Only one who possesses the Dao can do this.

Minister Yi's commentary says: one gives things to the destitute so they no longer suffer want, and cuts away the excess of the wealthy so they are spared the disasters that fullness brings. Only the Dao can accomplish this.

Therefore, the sage acts without claiming his actions as his own, and accomplishes merit without dwelling on it. Is this because he does not wish to appear more worthy than others?

The Imperial Commentary says: by not claiming his actions as his own, he has no mind of self-display, and by not occupying merit, he has no sense of self-satisfaction. Others flaunt their cleverness while he seems dull. Others compete to prevail while he yields and accepts burdens. He does not wish to appear worthy, and so he is often spared loss and receives the benefit of the Dao.

Minister Yi explains: the sage is able to follow the Dao (Dào, the Way) throughout the world, and so has no mind of self-satisfaction. Others deliberately display their cleverness, while he alone appears simple and unadorned. Others contend to outdo one another, while he alone accepts yielding and bending. Because he does not wish to appear wiser than others, he is often unharmed, and thereby attains a way of dealing with the world that accords with the Dao of Heaven.

Minister Yi further explains: the sage governs the world by following the Dao, and is able to use his surplus of goods and wisdom to nourish all under heaven, without regarding these as something to rely upon. When he accomplishes affairs yet does not take pride in them, and achieves merit yet does not claim it, it is because he does not wish to boast of himself or appear self-satisfied, as if to prove his own worthiness. Here, "worthiness" (xian) refers to achievement. As for "surplus" (you yu), it refers to the principles the sage has mastered: he uses what he understood first to enlighten those who come later, and uses what he knew first to teach those who follow. Going further, lightening taxes and distributing wealth to the common people, rather than gathering profit into the hands of the rulers, are likewise ways of offering one's surplus to all under heaven. Because the sage does not reveal his own virtue (De, Dé) and ability, the common people do not perceive the sovereign's merit. The sage's virtue accords with that of Heaven, and therefore it is said that he has attained the Dao of Heaven.

Chapter 78: The Soft and Weak

Nothing under heaven is softer or weaker than water, yet nothing surpasses water in overcoming what is hard and strong, because nothing can take its place.

The Imperial Annotation (yu zhu) says: The Yijing (Book of Changes) uses the well to illustrate human nature, meaning that nature does not change. Laozi says that water comes close to the Dao precisely because nothing can replace it. If the nature of water could change, it would follow others and lose itself, and how could it then surpass all things? Precisely because it does not change its nature, it keeps to its unity through all its countless transformations, and nothing can overcome it.

Minister Yi explains: the nature of water is that it takes the shape of its container. It accommodates curved, square, or round vessels, and its outward form changes accordingly. It is utterly soft and weak, yet it can wear down hard things, and nothing can defeat it. This is because its inner nature does not change with its transformations, and its inner substance always accords with the Dao. Thus softness is able to achieve victory.

That the soft overcomes the hard and the weak overcomes the strong is a principle that no one under heaven fails to know, yet no one is able to act upon it.

The Imperial Annotation says: Wisdom is sufficient for a person to understand the principle, but if benevolence and virtue are insufficient to hold on to it, one still cannot be said to have truly put it into practice.

I think that if one observes how water reshapes its circumstances and strikes against hard things, one will find that its nature is always yielding and unified. It is precisely because water is soft and weak that it comes to hold the advantage.

That the soft can overcome the hard and the weak can overcome the strong is something everyone under heaven knows, yet no one is able to act accordingly.

The Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: Knowledge may have reached this understanding, but benevolent virtue (De) cannot hold on to it.

I think that when one observes that water can wear down what is hard and strong, people all know that softness and weakness can prevail. This is something knowledge can recognize. But people fail to act on it because each seeks to prevail, and they cannot use benevolent virtue to hold on to the principle of softness.

Therefore the sage said: "Whoever can bear the filth of the state is called lord of the altars of soil and grain (the ruler charged with state sacrifice and political authority). Whoever can bear the misfortunes of the state is called king of all under heaven."

The Imperial Commentary says: Rivers and marshes take in foul water, and mountain forests shelter poisonous insects and fierce beasts. If a ruler can tolerate filth and embody the empty receptivity of the Dao, he can take in many things, become the one to whom all things turn, and govern an even wider realm. The Daodejing says: "Knowing what is glorious yet keeping to disgrace, one becomes a valley for all under heaven."

I think that water is close to the Dao, so the sage takes water's virtue as his model: it is soft, humble, able to hold filth and receive all things, and makes no distinction between good and bad, large and small, clean and dirty, or near and far. For this reason the sage can preside over the altars of the state and rule all under heaven.

Words that accord with the Dao often sound like they go against common sense.

The Imperial Commentary says: Speech does not have only one mode of expression. Some words appear to contradict the ordinary run of worldly affairs, yet they accord with the Dao, and this is the most correct principle under heaven.

I think that the claim that one who can bear filth and misfortune may become lord of the altars of the state and king of all under heaven is the correct Way spoken by the sage. The statement seems opposed to worldly views, and precisely because it runs against them, the true correct Way becomes visible. Thus, though words may appear paradoxical, when they accord with the Dao, this is the supremely correct principle under heaven.

Chapter 79: Resolving Great Resentment

To reconcile deep resentment is certain to leave lingering resentment behind. How could this be considered proper?

The one who can restore and complete things (fuwei, fùwěi) does not break the ridgepole that supports the house. Even when things go wrong, they do not blame the tiles the wind has blown down, so no lingering resentment remains in their heart. The way of cherishing people may be the very root of harming them, and the way of ending warfare may become the root of raising arms again. How could such a way be called good?

In antiquity, those skilled at governing the common people let the people govern themselves rather than forcing order through authority. The minds of the people are easily drawn along by profit and desire, so they indulge in extravagance and endless contention, seeking only to satisfy their own appetites. Rulers then establish prohibitions and impose punishments, regulating every matter, so that people cannot obtain what they want, and resentment arises from this. When desires are strong and unmet, the resentment runs all the deeper. Seeing the people's resentment, the rulers then try to harmonize and restrain them through ritual, music, moral instruction, rewards, punishments, and commands, yet this only causes the realm to accumulate still more resentment. Therefore the sage holds to the left tally (zuoqi, zuǒqì).

Therefore the sage holds the left tally, yet does not press others for repayment.

The sage follows the transformations of things without obstruction, accepts change, and abides in it peacefully. For this reason the sage does not blame others, and others have no grounds to blame the sage. A tally is split into left and right halves, used to distinguish what is taken from what is given. To hold the left tally means to give without demanding.

To hold the left tally is to practice wuwei (wúwéi), or non-action, letting affairs unfold according to their natural course and not deliberately driving the myriad things. One allows things to arrive of their own accord, responds to their coming, and accords with them. The sage always bears the responsibility for the realm, yet never shifts that responsibility onto others.

Therefore, one who possesses de (dé), or Virtue, keeps the tally.

Extending benefit to the multitude through de is called being a sage.

What is called "the de of no-de" (wude zhi de, wúdé zhī dé) is precisely the principle of keeping the tally.

One without de, by contrast, governs the collection of taxes.

The Imperial Commentary holds that a vast territory and a multitude of people would make governance too burdensome to manage, and that wisdom would struggle to remain thorough and discerning. Once De (Virtue) declined, punishments arose in its wake, and the disorder of later ages began from this. Laozi lived at the end of the Zhou dynasty and was weary of the chaos of his time. He entrusted his understanding of the Dao (the Way) to his book, hoping to reverse the fashion for ostentation and return people to a simple, sincere way of life. For this reason he spoke of a "small state with few people." The twelve rulers from Rongcheng Shi to Shennong Shi, who were traditionally said to have governed best, owed their achievement to this principle.

Minister Yi holds that in a small state affairs of government are easy to manage, and where the population is small, desires are easy to satisfy. When government is easy to manage, people have no occasion to misuse cleverness and strategy. When desires are easily satisfied, people have no reason to pursue cunning and deceit. Only then is it possible to return to simplicity and genuineness and to recover the unadorned customs of antiquity.

"Let the people have various implements, yet not use them." The Imperial Commentary explains that when the people are focused and settled, they do not form factions, and so they suffer none of the entanglements that come from gathering in crowds. Minister Yi explains that when people each remain content within their proper station and live their own lives well, there is no need to use the various implements, even though they possess them.

"Let the people value their lives and not migrate to distant lands."

"The Way of Heaven has no favorites, yet it always aids the good person." The Imperial Commentary says that the good person receives the support of the Way of Heaven, which bestows no private favor. Minister Yi says that resolving great resentment cannot rely merely on one's own sense of goodness and virtue. Only one who keeps faith with covenants and accords with the Dao may truly be called a good person, and only such a person is aided by the Way of Heaven.

People each keep to their own station and live their lives well, unburdened by forming factions or gathering crowds. Even though there are many kinds of implements, none of them are needed.

Let the people treasure their lives, not lightly give them up in death, and not wander far away to distant lands.

The Imperial Annotation (Yuzhu) explains: The people find joy in living and expect a proper burial after death, so they do not take their lives lightly, nor do they scatter across the land. Confucius said, "When those above have lost the proper Dao (the Way), the people have long been dispersed." Perhaps this refers to the situation of people fleeing to distant lands.

The ministers' commentary explains: The people understand that life is precious and are content with their lives, so they treasure it. They understand that their fundamental occupation is the root of their livelihood and take delight in it, so they do not go far away.

Even if there are boats and carts, there is no need to ride in them; even if there are armor and weapons, there is no need to display them.

The Imperial Annotation explains: In the mountains there are no narrow paths or tunnels, and across the marshes there are no boat-bridges. The people are simple and unworked, like raw wood, and their De (Virtue/Power) does not scatter. With no need to open up dangerous, distant roads, boats and carts go unused even when they exist; with no warfare or calamity, armor and weapons go unused even when they exist.

The ministers' commentary explains: The people are content with their lives and delight in their work, with no need to move about, so carts go unused even when they exist. With no war or calamity, armor and weapons go unused even when they exist. Those who are content with their station and satisfied with what they have do not think of contention.

Let the people return to the practice of knotting cords to keep records.

The Imperial Annotation explains: Knotted cords were used only to record important matters, so there was no need for written contracts.

The ministers' commentary explains: Written contracts become necessary only when the world lacks trust and good faith. When the people return to the simple customs of antiquity, they will keep faith with what was recorded by knotted cords.

Let the people find their food sweet and their clothing pleasing, content with their customs and delighted in their occupations.

The Imperial Annotation explains: Through farming there is food to eat, and through weaving there is clothing to wear. When the people are fed, they play and roam about with full bellies, living just as they naturally should. Keeping to their proper station, they find their food sweet; not pursuing show, they find their clothing fine; undisturbed, their lives are settled; and content with their livelihood, they take delight in their work.

"Food tastes sweet" does not mean that one needs an array of seasonings before food is considered good. It means being content with whatever food one has obtained. "Clothing looks beautiful" does not mean one must wear luxurious silks to feel well dressed. It means that clothing which fits one well is enough. To dwell in peace is to feel secure wherever one goes, and to delight in local customs is to find contentment wherever one is.

Neighboring states face one another so closely that the crowing of roosters and the barking of dogs can be heard across the border, yet the people never visit each other, even until they die of old age.

The Imperial Annotation says: Villages lie next to one another and their sounds carry, yet the people do not visit each other. In such an age, people have no desires and no cravings. No one arranges things deliberately, yet everything follows its natural course. To be within earshot of one another and yet never to visit until death is supreme De (the highest virtue).

The Minister's Commentary says: It is precisely because people deliberately display benevolence and cling to petty notions of righteousness that they come to prize social contact. In the age of supreme De, people live each in the contentment of their own circumstances and are bound to no one. They harbor no greed and seek nothing from others. Even when neighbors face each other and their sounds are heard, they never visit one another until death. Under such conditions, how could the faults of self-importance, affected pretense, and currying favor to please others ever arise?

Chapter Eighty-One: Trustworthy Words Are Not Beautiful

Trustworthy words are not necessarily pleasing to hear.

The Imperial Annotation says: When the Dao is spoken aloud, it seems as bland as if it had no flavor. It runs through the sages of every age without shame, and though it endures for ten thousand generations, it does not decay.

The Minister's Commentary says: Trustworthy words are words that accord with reason. They are not spoken merely to suit others' tastes, and so they are not necessarily liked by the world.

Pleasing words are not necessarily trustworthy.

The Imperial Annotation says: Ornate speech that is beautiful on the surface tends to dwell only on rhetoric and to treat branches as if they were the root. For this reason it is not sufficiently trustworthy.

The Minister's Commentary says: Words that delight the ear win people's affection, yet they may not accord with the Dao, and so they fall short in trustworthiness.

One who is truly good does not prove it through argument.

The Imperial Annotation says: In speaking, the emphasis lies on hitting the key points, and the wording accords with proper measure.

The Minister's Commentary says: One who is truly good naturally becomes evident and does not need to rely on debate. Therefore their words are concise and do not waste breath.

One who clings to argument is not necessarily good.

The commentary says that a text should attend to its genre and its key points, and that speech too must accord with proper standards.

Your minister explains: truly fine principles need no repeated argument, because they reveal themselves naturally. Therefore one who speaks with brevity and precision does not need many words.

One who is skilled at debate does not necessarily understand the principle.

The commentary says that when speech spreads into many side branches and minor details, it strays from the most proper principle under Heaven.

Your minister explains: debate exists to clarify principle, but when words are abundant and the content is hollow, it cannot be considered good.

One who truly understands the Dao does not prize broad seeing and hearing, and one who has broad seeing and hearing does not necessarily understand the Dao.

The commentary says that to grasp the subtle workings of the Dao, one need only hold fast to its essentials.

Your minister explains: the Dao is one, and it cannot be known through wide searching. To return to the essentials is to return to a state undisturbed by distracting thoughts, so why pursue broad learning?

The commentary says that even when seeing and hearing are abundant, they are no match for grasping the essentials of what is simple. The Zhuangzi says: "Broad learning is not necessarily true knowledge, and skill in debate is not necessarily true wisdom."

Your minister explains: excessively complicated knowledge burdens the mind, and the more one pursues breadth, the more one wastes one's thoughts on external things. Seeing and hearing come from outside, which is why broad learning is praised. If one knows oneself, one can know one's own nature and, through it, the Heavenly Way (Tiandao). Therefore, grasping the essentials surpasses the blind pursuit of breadth.

The sage (shengren) holds nothing back for himself and accumulates nothing.

The commentary says that when one accumulates, one feels insufficient; when one does not hoard privately, one can draw on an inexhaustible supply. The Zhuangzi says: "The Way of the sage operates without storing up." Confucius said: "It is precisely because of this that I study every day." (Here the term "ri zu" appears to be a corrupt reading in the transmitted text, and it is interpreted here according to the sense of the passage.)

Your minister explains: the sage's mind is empty and clear, and he does not treat things as his possessions, so how could he accumulate anything? Because he keeps nothing privately, he is able to meet the needs of all things under Heaven. If one stores up first and distributes afterward, the stored supply will eventually run out. Only when nothing is stored up can the sage's Way keep flowing without end.

When the sage helps others, he becomes all the more full himself; when he gives to others, he becomes all the more abundant.

The commentary says that the sage is skilled at bestowing and bringing things to completion, yet he does not diminish himself by doing so. All things receive benefit from him, and yet his provision never runs dry.

I say: What others cannot accomplish, and what is completed only once I act, is called "doing" (wei). What others lack, and come to possess only when I give it to them, is called "giving" (yu). The sage's doings and gifts are all rooted in the Dao (Dào), so the sage is not depleted by them, nor left wanting.

The Imperial Commentary (Yùzhù) says: The Dao is skilled at bestowing and bringing to completion the myriad things, yet it never wears itself down in doing so. All the myriad things draw their support from the Dao, yet the Dao does not run dry as a result.

I say: The Dao of Heaven (Tiāndào) causes all things to grow and reach completion and benefits them, yet it does not claim to be conferring favors. It never harms the myriad things. This is the Dao of Heaven.

The Imperial Commentary says: The Dao of Heaven initiates and transforms the myriad things, extending its fine benefits to all under heaven. It does not proclaim any benefit it has conferred, yet the myriad things truly profit from it and never suffer harm.

I say: The way of the sage's conduct is to act without contending with others.

The Imperial Commentary says: The sage follows things and does not go against them. In action he is like water, never obstructing the myriad things; in stillness he is like a clear mirror, reflecting things without concealing them. He harmonizes with others without speaking first, and when he responds, it is as natural as an echo. Though he acts, his action springs from non-action (wúwéi), meaning he does not force interference through private intent. How could a sage who emulates the Dao have anything to contend for? This virtue accords with the Dao, and so the De Jing (Dé Jīng, Classic of Virtue) ends here.

I say: The sage sets aside the self in dealing with the affairs of the world. Through non-action, he apprehends and practices the Dao, allowing the One Qi (qì, the vital energy by which heaven, earth, and the myriad things move and transform) to turn of its own accord, so that each thing fulfills its nature and is completed. When he acts, he is swift and smooth, like water, never going against things. When he is still, he is clear as a mirror and conceals nothing. When the myriad things come before him, he responds naturally, like an echo.

Things come into being from Wu (non-being), the root that has no concrete form. By practicing Wuwei (non-action), one can forget the self, and having forgotten the self, one no longer clings to external things. When both self and external things are let go, what is left to contend over? To act without contending is to embody and follow the Dao (the Way).

Laozi sets out the essential aims of the Dao and De (Virtue/Power), and their key lies in taking softness, weakness, and non-contention as the foundation. For this reason he concludes with the line, "The way of the sage is to act without contending." Only one who has attained the Dao can achieve this, and so Laozi raises it at the close of the De Jing (Classic of De).

Commentary on the Daode Zhenjing by Emperor Huizong of Song, Scroll Ten, Complete.